Hellenism: general characteristics of the era, main states. Architecture and decorative arts.
Hellenism- a period in the history of the Mediterranean, primarily the East, lasting from the time of the death of Alexander the Great (323 BC) until the final establishment of Roman rule in these territories, which is usually dated by the fall of Ptolemaic Egypt (30 BC). The term originally denoted the correct use of the Greek language, especially by non-Greeks, but after the publication of Johann Gustav Droysen's History of Hellenism (1836-1843), the concept entered historical science.
A feature of the Hellenistic period was the widespread dissemination of the Greek language and culture in the territories that became part of the states of the Diadochi, which were formed after the death of Alexander the Great in the territories he conquered, and the interpenetration of Greek and eastern - primarily Persian - cultures, as well as the emergence of classical slavery.
The beginning of the Hellenistic era is characterized by a transition from a polis political organization to hereditary Hellenistic monarchies, a shift in the centers of cultural and economic activity from Greece to Asia Minor and Egypt.
Formation and political structure of Hellenistic states
The sudden death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. e., served as a signal for the beginning of the collapse of his empire, which revealed all its ephemerality. Alexander's military leaders, called Diadochi, began a series of bloody wars and strife for the throne of a unified state, which lasted 22 years. Not one of the diadochi was able to win a decisive victory over all the others, and in 301 BC. e., after the Battle of Ipsus, they divided the empire into several independent parts.
Division of the power of Alexander the Great after the Battle of Ipsus (301 BC)
So, for example, Cassander got the throne of Macedonia, Lysimachus got Thrace and most of Asia Minor, Ptolemy got Egypt, Seleucus got vast lands from Syria to the Indus. This division did not last long - already in 285 BC. e. Lysimachus, together with the king of Epirus, conquers Macedonia, but soon dies in a war with Seleucus I Nicator. However, the Seleucid Empire itself soon loses the possessions it conquered in Asia Minor, as a result of which the region is divided into several small independent states, of which Pontus, Bithynia, Pergamon and Rhodes should be especially highlighted.
The new states are organized according to a special principle, called the Hellenistic monarchy, based on the synthesis of local despotic and Greek polis political traditions. The polis, as an independent civil community, retained its independence as a social and political institution even within the framework of the Hellenistic monarchy. Cities such as Alexandria enjoy autonomy, and their citizens enjoy special rights and privileges. The Hellenistic state is usually headed by a king, who has full state power. Its main support was the bureaucratic apparatus, which carried out the functions of managing the entire territory of the state, with the exception of cities that had the status of policies, which had a certain autonomy.
Compared to previous periods, the situation in the Greek world has changed significantly: instead of many poleis warring with each other, the Greek world now consisted of several relatively stable major powers. These states represented a common cultural and economic space, which is important for understanding the cultural and political aspect that era. The Greek world was a very closely interconnected system, which is confirmed by at least the presence of a unified financial system, as well as the scale of migration flows within the Hellenistic world (the Hellenistic era was a time of relatively high mobility of the Greek population. In particular, continental Greece, at the end of the 4th century BC . suffered from overpopulation, already by the end of the 3rd century BC.
Culture of Hellenistic society
Hellenistic society differs strikingly from classical Greek society in a number of ways. The actual withdrawal of the policy system into the background, the development and spread of political and economic vertical (rather than horizontal) connections, the collapse of obsolete ones social institutions, the general change in cultural background caused major changes in the Greek social structure. It was a mixture of Greek and oriental elements. Syncretism manifested itself most clearly in religion and the official practice of deifying monarchs.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HELLENISM ERA
What were the main trends that took place during the Hellenistic era? What major processes unfolded during this new historical era? First of all, it should be noted that the phenomenon of the Hellenistic era was unification of two civilizational areas– the ancient Greek world and the Ancient East. Previously, these two “worlds” developed separately and even opposed each other, as if embodying the primordial struggle between East and West, but now they have entered into a single system of states. Undoubtedly, the unification took place by force, as a result of the military campaigns of Alexander the Great, but this in no way means that the unification processes did not have internal, objective prerequisites. It is no coincidence that many scientists consider it possible to talk about the period of “pre-Hellenism”, when in the 4th century. BC e. (still in a hidden form) preparations were underway for the formation of Hellenistic civilization, both in Greece and in the East.
The main prerequisites that led to the emergence of Hellenism took shape in ancient Greek society in the 4th century. BC e. and were associated with crisis of the classical polis. On the one hand, the society of the late classical era outgrew the framework of the ancient polis, which over time turned out to be cramped, and gravitated towards a broader unification, but could not create such an unification on Greek soil. On the other hand, in the East, which by this time was already largely united under the rule of the Persians, there were huge material resources have been accumulated, but they remained unclaimed due to the insufficient degree of economic development, the low level of economic ties between individual regions, and also due to some specific features of the ancient Eastern mentality. The grandiose treasuries of the Persian kings in Susa and Persepolis, where thousands of tons of precious metals accumulated over the centuries, were not used at all for economic purposes.
Thus, the Achaemenid power needed some kind of dynamic structure that would revitalize its economy. In fact, on the eve of the emergence of Hellenistic civilization, there were two phenomena that could not help but interact - the “active poverty” of the Greeks and the “passive wealth” of the East. As a result, in the Hellenistic era a society arose that was neither like classical antiquity nor traditional eastern, but was largely a synthesis of them.
This interaction of Greek and Eastern principles covered almost all areas of life. In the economic sphere, ancient Eastern societies were characterized by the predominance of natural agriculture of the traditional type, with an extremely insignificant role of crafts and trade. In the Greek world, on the contrary, already from the archaic era, the rapid development of handicraft production and trade began. In the Hellenistic states, these two spheres of economic activity seemed to overlap each other, and as a result, a “mixed” economy arose: agriculture remained the basis of economic activity, but a dynamic trade and craft superstructure appeared above it.
If classical slavery was quite widespread in Greece, then the patriarchal, pre-Hellenistic East was characterized by the enslavement of dependent peasants, especially by the state. In the Hellenistic era and in this area, the interaction of two principles is noted. There were few slaves of the classical type in the Hellenistic kingdoms, but their very presence greatly influenced the treatment of peasants, whose exploitation was often intensified under the influence of “slave” models.
Political structures also acquired new forms in the Hellenistic world. Previously, monarchy prevailed everywhere in the East, sometimes characterized by the deification of the king and his very significant power, reaching absolute power (eastern despotism). In relation to the monarch, all residents of the state, without exception, were in the position of subjects, completely subordinate to the will of the ruler. The bureaucratic apparatus played a major role in the state, on which the kings relied when managing the lands under their control. The Greek world was characterized by a polis form of statehood with a republican structure. A citizen of the polis had political and personal freedom, obeyed only the law and took part in governing the state. There was practically no bureaucracy, everything officials were elective. In the Hellenistic era, polis and monarchical principles government structure also interacted.
Hellenistic king, or Diadochos (III-II centuries BC)
The power of Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic states that arose after its collapse developed as monarchy, moreover, with enormous, sometimes absolute powers of the tsar (in this respect they resembled eastern despotism). However, at the same time, the Greco-Macedonian Hellenistic monarchs relied more on the policies of the ancient type, founded by Alexander the Great, which were populated by Greeks who came from Hellas. Sometimes even some of the old eastern cities were given polis status. Polis became one of the important foundations of the power of the rulers of the Hellenistic era. The monarchs tried to maintain friendly relations with the civil collectives of the policies and assumed certain obligations, and above all the obligation not to violate the autonomy of the policy in matters of internal self-government. They no longer acted in relation to the Greek-Macedonian population as such unlimited rulers as in relation to the local residents. It is characteristic that in most Hellenistic states the armed forces were recruited precisely from Greek citizens of the city-states, and not from representatives of the peoples of the East.
The Greek city-states as part of the Hellenistic monarchies were rather unique political entities. They developed (although it was not fully realized by contemporaries) the category "citizen-subject": citizens of the Hellenistic policies of the East were at the same time subjects of the monarch on whose territory this policy was located. This wasn't something completely new. Indeed, in fact, in the classical era, the same citizen-subjects were the inhabitants of the Greek city-states of Asia Minor, who were under the rule of the Persian kings. The situation was the same in the policies that were part of the territorial powers created by some tyrants (the power of Dionysius of Sicily, the Bosporan kingdom). But if earlier in the Greek world such a phenomenon was atypical, now it has become widespread.
Hellenistic city-states were still constituted as civil communities with corresponding elected governing bodies. But unlike the poleis of previous centuries, they were not independent states. Now the policies had the supreme sovereign is the king. No matter how the Hellenistic monarchs tried to obscure this fact, unpleasant for the Greek love of freedom, by giving the poleis various privileges, granting them lands inhabited by local residents, nevertheless new reality era constantly made itself felt: from now on, the policies did not in any way resolve issues of foreign policy and their civil collectives were trusted only with internal self-government.
Since the unification of two such different “worlds” was forced, in many respects there was a kind of superposition of ancient structures on traditional oriental ones, which somewhere led to their organic interpenetration, and somewhere only to mechanical fusion. In some areas, Greek principles predominated, in others, oriental ones, in others, their ratio was approximately equal.
Since this “balance of principles” also depended on the region in which the interaction took place, the Hellenistic states were very heterogeneous and unstable entities. The societies that emerged in them turned out to be extremely complexly structured. Newcomer Greeks - citizens of city policies - and local peasants, who submitted to the new rulers, but preserved customs and habits that had been established for centuries; the descendants of the Macedonian conquering commanders, who were increasingly restructuring their way of life in an eastern way, and representatives of the Persian, Egyptian, and Phoenician nobility, who were joining the ancient civilization; Hellenic philosophers, poets, scientists who settled in the huge cities of the East and next to them - astrologers from Babylon, magicians from Media, priests from the sanctuaries of the Nile Valley, who now expounded their teachings in Greek - all this, coexisting side by side, intertwined in the most bizarre way. The Hellenistic world seemed to be fragmented into different, dissimilar “worlds.”
In addition, the scale and depth of the synthesis of Greek-Eastern principles, the role of ancient and eastern elements in it were, naturally, different in different regions of the Hellenistic world. Most intense Hellenization- the process of introducing the local population to the Greek way of life, Greek civilizational values - was observed in the regions of the Eastern Mediterranean: in Asia Minor, Syria and Phenicia, and partly in Egypt. However, this process affected, as a rule, cities, since they were the main habitat of the Greeks; the rural population - and it constituted the majority everywhere - preferred to adhere to the old, pre-Greek traditions. In addition, Hellenization affected mainly the upper strata of Eastern society, who had the opportunity and desire to enter the “Greek environment.” As for distant regions - Mesopotamia, Iran, Central Asia, then, with rare exceptions, as you move away from Mediterranean Sea Greek influence was felt less and less.
At the same time, there were regions where the influence of the East was absent. We are talking primarily about territories located on the Balkan Peninsula (Macedonia, Greece proper) and to the west of it ( Magna Graecia). These were the lands from where the conquests of Alexander the Great began. They did not have a conquered eastern population. However, these areas also formed an integral part of the system of Hellenistic states, dividing them historical destiny. The fact is that the Hellenistic world, despite all its heterogeneity, was whole system, the components of which, including territorial ones, were closely interconnected. Any amount important events events that occurred in one state immediately echoed in all others.
The Hellenistic era was a very great time population mobility. This was especially true for the Greeks: having decided to move to the East, they often began to constantly move from one country to another. Hellenic warriors, traders, and cultural figures could find themselves arbitrarily far from their homeland: in the new capital of Egypt, Alexandria, and in ancient Babylon, and somewhere in Bactria or Sogdiana. And everywhere they felt to a certain extent at home, because they found themselves among compatriots who spoke their native Greek language, among close and understandable cultural values.
Compared to previous eras, the political situation changed radically: instead of many independent poleis warring with each other, the Greek world now consisted of several relatively stable major powers. It is important that these states, in terms of civilization, represented unity, differing, in essence, only in the ruling dynasties. Everywhere the elite of society consisted of Greeks and Macedonians (Eastern aristocrats who had adopted the Greek way of life were already perceived as “Hellenes”), and Greek was the official language everywhere. Moreover, the Greek financial system, based on the drachma, prevailed everywhere. In other words, a mercenary, having received a salary for serving one Hellenistic king, could well spend this money in the domains of another monarch.
Thus, the system of the classical Greek polis, already shaken by the crisis of the 4th century. BC e., in the era of Hellenism, it finally lost its exclusivity, giving way to other realities.
Sources
In Hellenistic times there were quite a lot epigraphic monuments, although in content they were often more stereotypical and less informative than in the classical era. The inscriptions make it possible to see how the political life of the Greek city-states gradually fell into decay, how their people's assemblies, instead of resolving important state issues, were now mainly engaged in decreeing various kinds of honors to Hellenistic monarchs.
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Hellenism is the widespread spread of Greek culture, religion, philosophy, art, economics, politics and way of life to the East and their close interaction with the local social structure. As a result, a special syncretic culture arose, in which the Greeks were no longer an ethnic, but a socio-cultural phenomenon.
The Greek language, Koine (“common”), created on the basis of the Attic dialect, became widespread and became the language of the New Testament. Parallel to Koine, there was another international, but already eastern, language - Aramaic.
In the Hellenistic era, a new worldview was born, which became widespread and philosophically formulated - cosmopolitanism, awareness of oneself as a “citizen of the world.” The destruction of the civil thinking of people continued, but in a foreign land the Greeks, even from hostile cities, recognized spiritual unity in the face of a different culture; scattered throughout the ecumene, they felt that they belonged to the Hellenic world. The decline of polis ideology led to the rapid development of individualism. The experiences, feelings, and thoughts of an individual person found themselves at the center of religion, literature and art. The instability of life, social instability, wars, and coups resulted in widespread fatalism, reflected in philosophical and religious systems. Cosmopolitanism, individualism and fatalism clearly characterized the Hellenistic era in terms of serious spiritual changes. Learn "Hellenism" how historical era and it is impossible to understand it in all its originality without taking into account the basic fact that “Hellenism” is a stage in the history of ancient slave society. During the “Hellenistic” era, the world changed and expanded. Greek language could be used from Marseilles to India, from the Caspian Sea to the rapids of the Nile. Nationality recedes into the background; mutual language and general education contribute to the development of a common culture. Literature, science and, above all, philosophy are connected to a certain extent with a wider world than Greece. Trade has become international. “Hellenism” established other forms of state instead of eastern despotism and the Hellenic polis. But the Hellenistic monarchies in the East, the Macedonian coalition, the Achaean and Aetolian unions in the Balkans did not eliminate the Greek polis with its narrow interests. Of course, these were not independent city-states, but their existence connected citizens with the old founders of the polis.
On the other hand, eastern despotism was not eliminated. Alexander's successors continued to act in the same way. Even in the field of culture, where “Hellenism” means a radical revolution, the matter was not completed; Eastern cultures were not absorbed, Hellenic culture was not forgotten classical period.
Thus, Hellenism can be regarded as a progressive stage in the history of antiquity, but with a significant caveat. In its initial period, new forms of economic, political and spiritual life were created. But the changes that have taken place in all areas of life in Hellenistic period, were not deep enough, the reasons that led to the crisis of the Hellenic states were not overcome.
In all areas of culture, Hellenism signifies a revolution of world-historical significance. Much was only outlined; the Hellenistic economy did not create the conditions for the final processing of the classical heritage, for the creation on its basis of a new integral worldview, the integrity of a harmonious culture. The contradictions of slave society, after a short period of growth, affected very quickly and led to the fact that development proceeded at a feverish pace with short-term ups and long periods of decline; in some areas - philosophy, literature - the decline became chronic. But in general, elliptical culture is a new stage in the cultural history of mankind, which influenced its entire further course.
The culture that developed throughout the Hellenistic world was not uniform. In each region, it was formed through the interaction of local, most stable traditional elements of culture with the culture brought by conquerors and settlers - Greeks and non-Greeks. The forms of synthesis were determined by the influence of many specific circumstances: the numerical ratio of various ethnic groups (local and newcomers), the level of their economy and culture, social organization, political situation, etc. Even when comparing large Hellenistic cities, where the Greek-Macedonian population played a leading role , the special features of cultural life characteristic of each city are clearly visible; They appear even more clearly in the internal regions of the Hellenistic states (for example, in Thebaid, Babylonia, Thrace). And, however, all local variants of Hellenistic culture are characterized by some common features, due, on the one hand, to similar trends in the socio-economic and political development of society throughout the Hellenistic world, and on the other hand, to the obligatory participation in the synthesis of elements of Greek culture. The formation of Hellenistic monarchies in combination with the polis structure of cities contributed to the emergence of new legal relations, a new socio-psychological appearance of man and society, and a new content of his ideology. A tense political situation, continuous military conflicts between states and social movements within them also left a significant imprint on Hellenistic culture. In Hellenistic culture, differences in the content and nature of the culture of the Hellenized upper strata of society and the urban and rural poor, among whom local traditions were more firmly preserved, appear more prominently than in classical Greek culture.
Hellenistic culture should not obscure the material foundations on which it arose. On the contrary, precisely in the aspect public relations its essence and its historical role. The historical role of Hellenism becomes clear as one of the stages at which the socio-economic limitations of a slave-owning society were undermined and the prerequisites for a more progressive socio-economic rise were created, although to an insufficient extent. The Hellenistic culture created on this basis was fundamentally new, since it, although incompletely, broke the framework of the previous limitations.
Main art centers and monuments.
Laocoon with his sons
The best works of Hellenistic art were created from the end of the 4th century BC. until the middle of the 2nd century BC, during the heyday of the Hellenistic states and the emergence of a number of independent cultural centers.
The nature of artistic creativity of the Hellenistic era changed dramatically compared to the classical period. The generalized image of the hero-citizen of the polis is replaced, on the one hand, by the image of the deified and heroized personality of the monarch, and on the other, by the individualized image of the individual, either in a tragic conflict with the environment, or selfish, achieving his goal by any means, or an image with exaggerated heroic beginning. There is an interest in social motives, lyrical-intimate and everyday aspects of individuality.
The development of private life and the spread of luxury in the everyday life of the nobility caused the rise of residential architecture. Houses with a courtyard with a peristyle in the center increase in size and are decorated with mosaics, paintings, and sculpture.
A number of architects write treatises outlining the fundamentals of construction science and information on the theory of architecture. An important place in these treatises is given architectural styles. If in classical Greek architecture orders - Doric, Ionic, Corinthian - were not canonized and had their own unique proportions in each individual case, then in Hellenistic architecture an attempt is made to establish known canons, the most successful proportions of orders and their individual parts. There were trends towards mixing different orders and their elements in one building, and the plans of buildings became more complicated. In the architecture of the eastern regions, along with the order system, arches and vaults were sometimes used.
The architects of Hellenism did not create architectural images similar in depth to the Parthenon, but they surpassed the classical masters in creating huge building complexes. The Hellenic sense of boundless open spaces found vivid expression in the forms of architecture. The grandiose ensembles and majestic high-rise buildings of Hellenism reflected feelings that escaped from the narrow framework of polis balance into the turbulent, disharmonious world of huge monarchies.
Another feature of Hellenistic architecture was the sound of a new theme - tension - in the artistic layout of the buildings of the Hellenistic acropolises, especially noticeable after the majestically calm classical ensembles.
Due to the flourishing of architecture during the Hellenistic era, frescoes and mosaics became widespread and decorated houses and public buildings. Mosaics often decorated not only the walls, but also the floors. In painting and mosaics, Hellenistic masters preferred unusual, exciting, disturbing subjects and themes.
In sculpture, those trends that appeared already in the works of the late classics found continuation and development. However, the theme of the images of Praxiteles acquired the character of emphasized sensuality in Hellenism, and the pathos of the images of Skopas was echoed in the increased drama of many Hellenistic sculptures. But both were permeated by a special, intense pulsation of the dynamic rhythm of the era, expressed by Lysippos.
In Hellenistic art, sculptors learned to convey the most free movements, but the goal of this skill is to make the strongest possible impression on the audience, therefore all means of expression are intensified, and there is no longer the inherent restraint high classics. This is the frieze of the altar erected on the Pergamon Acropolis. His grandiose images are designed to shock a person, to make him feel his weakness before higher powers.
Hellenistic rulers and their nobles, rich people wanted to decorate their palaces, gardens and parks works of art, as similar as possible to those that were considered perfection in the era of classics and the power of Alexander the Great. Decorative sculpture is developing. Having received numerous orders, the masters of the Hellenistic era no longer bothered themselves with searching for new forms, but only sought to make a statue that would seem no worse than the original of Praxiteles or Lysippos, which invariably led to the borrowing of already found forms, that is, to academicism, and statues of Aphrodite appeared, depicting the goddess as coquettishly cutesy or bashful. In the dense greenery of gardens and parks one could find statues of Cupids and Psyche tenderly embracing, centaurs saddled by playful gods of love...
However, in 1820, a statue of Aphrodite, now known as the Venus de Milo, was found on the island of Milos (in the Aegean Sea). Its author was a sculptor named Alexander or Agesend: not all the letters in the inscription have been preserved. Everything in this statue is so harmonious and harmonious, the strong, calm and beautiful body embodies the high ideal of the classical era, and the classically beautiful face is full of inner passion to match the Hellenistic era.
The art of portraiture is very common in the Hellenistic world. “Eminent people” are multiplying, having succeeded in the service of the Diadochi rulers or who have risen to the top of society thanks to a more organized exploitation of slave labor than in the former fragmented Hellas: they want to imprint their features for posterity. At the same time, portrait art continued to develop the late classical tradition. Portraits are becoming more and more individualized, but at the same time, if we have before us the highest representative of power, then his superiority and the exclusivity of the position he occupies are emphasized.
Nike of Samothrace
Such grandiose sculptural groups as “Laocoon with his sons” and “Farnese Bull” aroused the admiration of many generations of enlightened representatives of European culture. Now, when the beauty of the Parthenon has been revealed, they seem overly theatrical, overloaded, and crushed in detail.
However, the Nike of Samothrace, sculpted in an earlier period of Hellenism, is one of the pinnacles of art. This statue stood on the bow of the stone monument ship. With the flapping of her mighty wings, Nika-Victory rushes forward uncontrollably, cutting through the wind under which her robe flutters. The head of the statue is broken off, but the grandeur of the image reaches us completely.
It was in the Hellenistic world that cameos - relief-carved gems - first appeared. They had no practical use. They were decorated with them, they were admired - and that’s all. However, their creation required rare stones and painstaking work. Only a wealthy society, in its pursuit of brilliance and refined splendor, could afford such luxury, such widespread dissemination of this art. Cameos first appeared precisely in the Hellenistic world and, in all likelihood, in Alexandria, where the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty reigned with truly pharaonic pomp.
Small masterpieces inspired by the genius of Praxiteles were terracottas - figurines made of baked clay, which reproduce characteristic types snatched from a variety of segments of the population: smart young women, children, musicians, acrobats, fist fighters, fishermen, chickens, blacks, pygmies, artisans, servants, slaves. This was the cheapest production, since the figurines were made in molds and produced in a huge number both in Greece itself and in the Greek cities of Asia Minor, in Alexandria, in the Northern Black Sea region. The first place in terms of their artistic qualities is occupied by terracottas from Tangara in Boeotia, almost entirely dedicated to feminine charm and grace. And there is nothing sweet about them, no deliberate grace. Small, toy-like, female images captivate us with their freshness and most lively spontaneity.
There is a violation in the architecture of the Hellenistic era strict style, resulting in eclecticism.
If the art of classical Greece pursued mainly cultic goals, then Hellenistic art pursued decorative goals.
During the Hellenistic period, the people were excluded by monarchs from participation in state affairs, and this led to fundamental changes in the field of ideology, and in particular in literature. The growth of individualism and the weakening of civic feelings caused a reduction in the problems of literature. The gap between the citizen and society is becoming more and more noticeable. The man of the Hellenistic era felt lonely and helpless, he was lost in the huge world that opened before him, he was excluded from public life new vast state formations. He was left with the sphere of his personal life, his own closed little world.
Less popular during the Hellenistic period was the philosophy of skeptics, which declared all truth relative and all knowledge unreliable. While fighting the superstitions of the Stoics, the skeptics, like them and the Epicureans, preached “serenity” and “freedom from passions.”
All these philosophical systems characteristic of the Hellenistic era in that they lack local patriotism and contain concern for the happiness of the individual, more or less free from responsibilities to the state.
The heyday of Hellenistic literature was the 3rd century. BC e. Big influence this literature was written at the end of the 4th century. BC e. "Characters" of Theophrastus, a student of Aristotle. This work depicted types of people distinguished by a certain combination of traits (flatterer, curmudgeon, chatterbox, drunkard, unscrupulous, superstitious, arrogant, etc.). In line with “Characters,” the so-called new (or “new Attic”) comedy developed, which is sometimes called “the comedy of characters.”
New period in Greek history was the campaign to the East of the famous ruler Alexander the Great. As a result of numerous wars, a huge power emerged, the borders of which extended from Egypt to modern Central Asia. It was at this time that the Hellenistic era began. By it we should mean the spread of Greek culture throughout all the territories conquered
What can be said about Hellenism?
Due to the fact that there was a fusion of Greek and local cultures, Hellenism appeared. This mutual enrichment influenced the preservation of a single culture in several states even after the collapse of the empire.
What does Hellenism mean? It is worth immediately noting that it is violent, since the formation of this culture occurred as a result of numerous wars. Hellenism contributed to the unification of the ancient Greek world with the ancient Eastern one; previously they had developed in different directions. As a result, a powerful state emerged with a unified socio-economic structure, political structure and culture.
As already mentioned, Hellenism is a kind of synthesis of different elements of culture. It can be viewed from several perspectives. On the one hand, the emergence of Hellenism was influenced by the development of ancient Greek society, as well as the crisis of the Greek polis. On the other hand, ancient Eastern societies played a role in its formation, namely their conservative and sedentary social structure.
Reasons that influenced the emergence of Hellenism
The need for the fusion of several cultures arose due to the fact that the Greek polis began to gradually slow down historical progress, having exhausted all its possibilities. That is why discord began to arise between different classes, a social struggle between oligarchy and democracy. Fragmentation caused wars between individual cities. And so that the history of the state does not stop, it was necessary to unite the warring parties.
However, this is not the only reason for the emergence of a new culture. The Hellenistic era arose in connection with the crisis of ancient Eastern socio-political systems. In the 4th century BC. the ancient eastern world, which had already become part of the Persian Empire, was not experiencing the most best period. Due to the stagnant economy, it was impossible to develop the vast empty lands. In addition, the kings of Persia did not give permission for the construction of new cities, did not support trade, and did not put into circulation the large reserves of currency metal lying in their basements. And if Greece in the 4th century BC. suffered due to the excessive activity of the political system, overpopulation and limited resources, the opposite situation was observed in the Persian monarchy.
In this regard, the task arose of a kind of unification, synthesis of different systems that can complement each other. In other words, there was a need for a culture such as Hellenism. This happened after the collapse of the power built by Alexander the Great.
Merging different elements
What areas of life were covered by the synthesis of components inherent in the Greek and Eastern states? There are several different points vision. Some scientists understood Hellenism as the unification of several elements characteristic of culture and religion. Domestic historians described this merger from the perspective of the combination and interaction of the economic, class-social, political, and cultural spheres. In their opinion, Hellenism is a progressive step that greatly influenced the fate of ancient Greek and ancient Eastern societies.
The synthesis of elements progressed differently in different regions. In some states it was more intense, in others less. In some cities, an important role was assigned to elements inherent in Greek culture, while in others, ancient Eastern principles dominated. Such differences arose due to specific historical features societies and cities.
Development of Hellenistic society
The Hellenistic period affected state formations of different sizes, from Sicily and southern Italy to northwestern India (from the southern borders to the first rapids of the Nile River). In other words, classical Greece and the East were part of Hellenistic society. Only India and China were not included in this territory.
Several regions can be distinguished that were characterized by common features:
- Egypt and the Middle East.
- Balkan Greece, western territory of Asia Minor, Macedonia.
- Magna Graecia with the Black Sea region.
The most characteristic elements inherent in Hellenism manifested themselves in full in Egypt and the Middle East. In this regard, these regions can be considered an area in which classical Hellenism dominated.
Greece, like other regions, had differences mainly in the socio-economic, political and cultural spheres. We can say that in Ancient Greece there was no synthesis as such at all. However, for some reasons it is argued that these territories also became part of the system of Hellenistic countries.
Development of culture and science
The culture of Hellenism influenced the disappearance of the gap between technology and science, practice and theory, characteristic of the classical period. This can be seen in the work of Archimedes, who discovered the hydraulic law. It was he who made a huge contribution to the development of technology, designing combat throwing machines along with defensive weapons.
The creation of new cities and advances in areas such as navigation and military technology contributed to the rise of certain sciences. Among them we can highlight mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, and geography. Euclid also played a significant role in this. He became the founder of elementary geometry. Eratosthenes determined the true dimensions of the globe, proved that our planet rotates around its axis and moves around the sun. Successful development occurred in both natural science and medicine.
The rapid development of science and culture has entailed the need to store information. In this regard, libraries were built in some cities.
Speaking about what features of Hellenism can be identified, it should be said about the development of a new branch - philology. Much attention began to be paid to grammar, criticism, and so on. Schools played a huge role. Literature became more diverse, but it still continued to succumb to classical elements. Epic and tragedy became more judicious, as erudition and virtuosity of style, as well as sophistication, came to the fore.
What happened in philosophy?
The philosophy of Hellenism also acquired some differences. Faith in gods decreased. New cults began to appear. Civic ideals gradually faded into the background, giving way to individualism. Instead of community, indifference arose, indifference to those issues that were related to a person’s nationality. It was social status that became the determining factor in people's lives. The philosophy of the Hellenistic era was developed through the formation of several schools: Cynics, Skeptics, Stoics, Epicureans and Peripatetics.
Philosophers began to gradually abandon the idea of space. More attention was paid to the person from the position of a certain self-sufficient unit. Social and civic ideals have faded into the background.
It is necessary to abandon all the benefits of civilization
The Cynic school played a huge role in the development of Hellenism. He did not write books, but simply lived. The philosopher tried to show by his example how important it is to follow what he believed were true ideals. He argued that civilizations and all human inventions do not contribute to happiness, they are harmful. Wealth, power, fame - all these are just empty words. He lived in a barrel and wore rags.
Happiness must exist without vanity
The philosophy of Hellenism gained a lot thanks to Epicurus, who was the founder of the Garden school. To study, he chose the problem of human happiness. Epicurus believed that the highest pleasure can be obtained only by renouncing the aspirations of vanity. According to him, it is necessary to live unnoticed, as far as possible from passions, in serene detachment.
Sayings of the Stoics
The philosophy of the Hellenistic era reached its peak. Huge role in the formation social worldview played by the school of stoicism. She also dealt with the problem of human happiness. The following was stated: due to the fact that various troubles cannot be avoided anyway, one must get used to them. This is what salvation was, according to the Stoics. You need to properly organize your inner world. Only in this case will no external problems be able to throw you out of balance. It is necessary to be above external stimuli.
Conclusion
Hellenism played a very important role in the development. All the achievements of this period became the basis of aesthetic ideas that appeared along with other eras. Greek philosophy became fundamental in the development of medieval theology. Mythology and literature continue to be popular today.
Animals
