The answers to tasks 1–20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers in the fields to the right of the assignment number without spaces, commas or other additional characters.

Write down the word missing in the table.

In the given series, find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts presented. Write down this word (phrase).

Classroom; labor collective; parental family; socialization agent; MASS MEDIA:

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to the concept of “social regression”.

1) movement, 2) change, 3) technical revolution, 4) improvement, 5) decline, 6) degradation.

Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Select correct judgments about truth and its criteria and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. True knowledge always corresponds to the object being known.

2. The criterion of true knowledge is its compliance with the interests of the knowing subject.

3. Relative truth is knowledge that changes as the capabilities of knowledge develop.

4. Truth is associated with the conditions of place, time, etc., which must be taken into account in the process of cognition.

5. True knowledge is always shared by the majority of people.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and the corresponding types of worldview

In country Z, extensive technology and hand tools predominate. What other signs indicate that country Z is developing as traditional society? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. the main social units are the tribe and the extended family

2. there is an increase in the urban population

3. oral information prevails over written information

4. infrastructure is intensively developing

5. scientific knowledge is widely disseminated

6. subsistence farming dominates

Choose the correct statements about unemployment and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. In a market economy, there is a natural level of unemployment.

2. Seasonal unemployment is caused by structural changes in the economy.

3. Mass unemployment is accompanied by a decline in the standard of living of the majority of the population.

4. The impossibility of employment due to differences in the structure of demand and supply of labor services of different qualifications gives rise to cyclical unemployment.

5. The lack of awareness of the unemployed about vacancies suitable for them may be the cause of frictional unemployment.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and types of competition (competitive markets): for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

You are asked to prepare a presentation on factors of production. Which of the following can be included in the “Labor as a Factor of Production” slide? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Relevant provisions.

1. Factor income - profit.

2. Factor income - wage employee.

3. All types of natural resources available on the planet and suitable for the production of life's goods.

4. The limitation of this factor is due to the volume of money supply in circulation.

5. The activities of people in the production of goods and services by using their physical and intellectual capabilities, professional skills and experience.

6. The limitation of this factor is due to the size of the working population; its territorial location, professional structure, religious and cultural traditions, etc.

Choose the correct judgments about social conflicts and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. Social conflicts can be both constructive and destructive.

2. Misunderstanding of the reasons causing the conflict can lead to an increase in its scale.

3. The parties to the conflict during its development are able to unite to achieve their goals.

4. One of the ways to resolve social conflict is to continue confrontation.

5. Social conflict is always generated economic reasons.

Scientists studied the consumer behavior of residents of countries Z and Y during the economic crisis. The histogram shows data (as a percentage of the number of respondents) on how consumer demand changed during the year.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The share of those who began to buy products of cheaper brands is greater in country Z than in country Y.

2. Equal shares of respondents in both surveys noted that they refused to purchase some products.

3. The share of those who began to buy fewer products and go to the store less often is greater in country Z than in country Y.

4. Among those surveyed in country Z, the share of those who refused to purchase some products is greater than the share of those who believed that the crisis did not affect consumer demand.

5. Among respondents in country Y, the share of those who began to buy fewer products and went to the store less often is greater than the share of those who buy products of cheaper brands.

Select the correct judgments about the political elite and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The political elite is a small independent group ready to make political decisions.

2. The political elite is a group of people who are the source of power in any state.

3. The main functions of the political elite include production and consumption material goods.

4. The political elite nominates political leaders.

5. In relation to state power, there is a ruling elite and a counter-elite.

Establish a correspondence between the issues and the subjects of state power of the Russian Federation to whose jurisdiction they relate

Head of State Z is the supreme commander of the armed forces of the state. What other signs indicate that the form of government of state Z is a monarchy? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. The head of state receives power by inheritance.

2. The most notable people are among the advisers to the head of state.

3. Laws are adopted by the parliament elected by citizens.

4. The state consists of several administrative-territorial units.

5. The head of state enjoys his power for life.

6. Upon taking office, the head of state takes an oath.

Which of the following refers to the constitutional duties of a citizen of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. defense of the Fatherland

2. payment of legally established taxes and fees

3. participation in the management of state affairs

4. choice of activity and profession

5. preservation of historical and cultural heritage

What is included in the legal system? Select the required items from the list provided and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. legal custom

2. rule of law

3. branch of law

4. legal sanction

5. Institute of Law

6. legal precedent

Establish a correspondence between the actions and elements of the employee’s legal status in the Russian Federation: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Kirill Arkadyevich - prosecutor. Find in the list given the actions that are within the prosecutor’s terms of reference and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1. represent and defend the interests of the accused in court

2. make copies of documents

3. carry out criminal prosecution on behalf of the state during criminal proceedings

4. ensure the legality and validity of the state prosecution during criminal proceedings

5. oversee the implementation of laws

6. draw up wills, certify the accuracy of the signature

Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

“The political elite is one of the __________(A) of politics. It is classified as an institutional component__________(B). This is a narrow circle of persons exercising power in society. In__________ (B) it is customary to divide this social stratum into two groups. The first is based on land ownership, __________(G), religion, origin, and therefore belongs to the traditional type. The basis of the second, modern group is political knowledge, experience, __________ (D) in issues social life. It is difficult to get into the first group; the main __________ (E) selection of people is their origin and personal devotion. Members of the second group also regulate the process of arrival of new people, but the main requirement is professionalism.”

The words (phrases) in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once.

Select one word (phrase) after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words (phrases) in the list than you will need to fill in the gaps.

List of terms:

1. political system of society

2. social structure society

3. competence

4. criterion

5. subject

6. economics

7. wealth

9. political science

Part 2.

First write down the number of the task (28, 29, etc.), and then a detailed answer to it. Write down your answers clearly and legibly.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

The main contradiction I encountered modern man, this is a sharp discrepancy between the biological and social capabilities of man and the civilizational capabilities that the world, built according to the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him. Which is why the problem arises: what state is the world heading towards? The first option: it could be a more developed world, progressing economically, politically, morally and otherwise. But there may be another option: a world deteriorating in some of these relationships or in all of them at once. But so far only one thing is clear: humanity... has received beginning of XXI V. very powerful means of influencing both nature and society...

Man as a socio-biological being functions at the intersection of two opposing types of needs. Necessities of the first type are a combination of biological, social and other needs. Among them, the leading ones are the needs coming from the human body. A person needs to eat, drink, rest, needs some minimum level of comfort, some kind of personal circle of communication, etc. All this in a certain context can serve as the basis for selfish strategies human existence. Thus, the well-being of one specific individual, one family, (a certain circle of people connected by blood or business ties, etc.) can be placed at the center of such strategies.

The needs of the second type are associated with the socio-spiritual content of human consciousness and, first of all, with moral and ethical standards, among which human conscience, understood in various ways, comes first. philosophical schools differently. But all these schools agree on one thing: it is conscience that is an integral component of such experiences as compassion, altruism, heroism, etc. Conscience is also one of the components of spirituality... The situation of modern life is such that... lack of spirituality begins to permeate the entire society, and one of its most dangerous consequences is a decrease in the sense of responsibility of the individual. Such a decrease in the responsibility of the individual can be carried out in a certain “corridor” - from inattention to the object of communication or control, etc. until his needs and interests are completely ignored. If a soulless person finds himself at vital points in the state, economic, political, etc. mechanism, then its inadequate actions can lead to various kinds of disasters.

(T.D. Sterledeva, R.K. Sterledeva)

What two types of necessities of human existence are noted by the authors? What is the main contradiction, according to the authors, that modern man faces?

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Elements:

1) two types of needs (answer to the first question): a set of biological, social and other needs; necessities associated with the socio-spiritual content of human consciousness;

2) contradiction (answer to the second question): a sharp discrepancy between the biological or social capabilities of man and the civilizational capabilities that the world, built with the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him.

Elements of the answer can be given in other, similar in meaning formulations

Show answer

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) answer to question: one of the most dangerous consequences of lack of spirituality is a decrease in the individual’s sense of responsibility;

(The answer to the question can be given in a different formulation that is similar in meaning.)

2) judgment, revealing the contradictory influence of mass culture on the spirituality of the individual, for example: works of mass culture often promote violence, which negatively affects the spirituality of the individual; At the same time, mass culture (within the framework of educational programs) gives the average viewer the opportunity to become familiar with the masterpieces of world culture. A different judgment may be expressed.

A judgment that does not reveal the contradictory influence of mass culture, but only any aspect of influence, is not counted in the assessment

The authors claim that humanity received by the beginning of the 21st century. very powerful means of influencing nature and society. Name any one means of influencing nature and any one means of influencing society and illustrate with examples the effect of each of the means.

Show answer

The correct answer should include means of influence and the corresponding examples:

1) nuclear energy (for example, after an accident at a nuclear power plant, all components of the region’s natural environment were exposed to radioactive contamination);

2) electronic means mass media(for example, under the influence of media information, citizens began to buy foreign currency en masse, creating a crisis situation in the banking sector).

Other means of influence may be named and other examples given.

The authors proposed two options for answering the question: what state is the world heading towards? Which of these answer options seems more reasonable to you? Using your social science knowledge, provide three reasons to support your opinion.

Show answer

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) option to answer the question: a more developed, progressive world OR a degrading world;

2) confirmation:

if you select the first answer to the question it can be said that

The duration, level and quality of people’s lives are increasing;

Science and technology are actively developing;

Democracy and civil society are developing;

if you choose the second answer to the question it can be said that

IN modern world Wars do not stop, millions of people suffer from hunger and disease;

There is a great gap in the quality of life of the population of the most developed (“golden billion”) and the poorest countries of the world;

Mass culture broadcasts works that are incompatible with moral values and ideas about beauty.

Other evidence for the chosen point of view may be provided.

What meaning do social scientists give to the concept of “inflation”? Using your social science course knowledge, write two sentences: one sentence containing information about the cause(s) of inflation, and one sentence revealing the essence of any type of inflation.

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The correct answer must contain the following elements:

1) meaning of the concept, for example: inflation is the process of depreciation of money and a decrease in its purchasing power, manifested in an increase in the general price level;

(Another, similar definition or explanation of the meaning of the concept may be given.)

2) one sentence with information about the cause(s) of inflation based on knowledge of the exchange rate, for example: One of the causes of inflation is the unjustified growth of the money supply in circulation.;

(Another sentence may be written containing information about the cause(s) of inflation.)

3) one sentence, which, based on knowledge of the exchange rate, reveals the essence of any type of inflation, for example: Creeping inflation is characterized by an average annual increase in prices of 3-5%.

(Another sentence can be drawn up that, based on knowledge of the course, reveals the essence of any type of inflation.)

Based on social science knowledge, personal experience Model a specific situation that illustrates negative deviant behavior. Give three examples of informal negative sanctions that are possible in this case.

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The answer must contain the following elements:

1) situation model negative deviant behavior: K. let down his workmates: he did not fulfill his obligations to organize an evening dedicated to the anniversary of the oldest employee of the company;

2) three examples informal negative sanctions, for example:

Some of his colleagues refused to shake his hand when they met him;

Some colleagues reprimanded him;

The artist drew a caricature.

Other relevant situations may be modeled and other relevant examples of sanctions may be provided.

In country Z, the government is formed by the bloc of parties that won the elections. Deputy seats (mandates) in the legislative assembly are distributed among lists of candidates in proportion to the votes cast for the lists of candidates, if these parties have overcome the 5 percent threshold. What type of electoral system is country Z? What is the other type of electoral system called? Name the difference between these two systems. Name any common feature of electoral systems in a democratic society.

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The correct answer must contain the following elements:1) type- proportional electoral system;2) other type- majoritarian electoral system: 3) difference, for example: in a proportional system, voters vote for party lists, and not for specific candidates, as in a majoritarian system. (Another difference can be formulated);4) common feature, for example: - general equal elections by secret ballot; - alternative nature of elections; - candidates provide information about their income. Other common features of these electoral systems in a democratic society can be given

You have been instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic “Russian legal system.” Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in subparagraphs.

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One of the options for covering this topic

1. The concept of the legal system.

2. Basic elements of the legal system:

a) rule of law;

b) institute of law;

c) branch of law.

3. Main branches of Russian law:

b) civil law;

c) labor law;

d) criminal law;

e) criminal procedural law, etc.

4. Substantive and procedural law (subparagraphs may be given).

5. Public law:

a) constitutional (state) law;

b) criminal law;

V) administrative law and etc.

6. Private law:

a) civil law;

b) business law, etc.

7. The Constitution of the Russian Federation in the system of Russian law.

8. Reflection of the features of social development in the legal system.

A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, question or mixed forms

By completing task 29, you can demonstrate your knowledge and skills on the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only ONE of the statements below (29.1-29.5).

Choose one of the statements proposed below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic raised).

When expressing your thoughts about the problem raised (the designated topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained from studying the social studies course, relevant concepts, as well as facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from different sources for factual argumentation.)

29.1. Philosophy“The less people know, the more extensive their knowledge seems to them.” (J.-J. Rousseau)

29.2. Economy“Questions: what? How? and for whom? production would not be a problem if resources were not limited.” (P. Samuelson)

29.3. Sociology, social psychology"Man is fundamental novelty in nature". (N.A. Berdyaev)

29.4. Political science“The main achievement of democracy is the right to say “no.” (Yu. Nesterenko)

29.5. Jurisprudence“A wise legislator begins not by making laws, but by examining their suitability for a given society.” (J.-J. Rousseau)

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;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Problems with mastering the material on the topic under consideration were also revealed by task with a detailed answer C5. Explain what meaning social scientists mean by the concept of “truth”, and compose sentences containing social scientific information about this concept, 32% of respondents were able to make only one sentence.

I propose to complete a series of tasks to analyze two judgments on the topics “Types of knowledge” and “The concept of truth, its criteria.”

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1.;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to human interests.
B. Truth is the correspondence of thought to reality.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2.;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Are they correct? the following judgments about the truth? Truth is;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Objective reflection of objects and phenomena in human consciousness.
B. The result of knowledge, existing only in the form of concepts, judgments and theories.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#ff0000">Comment;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">. In order to complete these two tasks, you need to remember what truth is. There are different interpretations of the concept “truth”.

Truth is:
correspondence of knowledge to reality;
what is confirmed by experience;
some kind of agreement, convention;
property of self-consistency of knowledge;
usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.

The classic definition is as follows: truth is knowledge that corresponds to its subject and coincides with it. The forms of cognition are not only concepts and judgments, but also ideas, perceptions, sensations, and inferences.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3.;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Are the following truth statements true?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Truth is relative, because the world is changeable and infinite.
B. Truth is relative, because the possibilities of knowledge are determined by the level of development of science.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">4. Are the judgments correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Any truth is objective and relative.
B. Absolute truth practically unattainable.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">5. Are the following statements true? Knowledge is called relative truth;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Not everyone agrees with it.
B. Incomplete, true only under certain conditions.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#ff0000">Comment;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">. Objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity.

Absolute truth is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

Relative truth is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; This is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

Difference between absolute and relative truths(or absolute and relative in objective truth) in the degree of accuracy and completeness of reflection of reality. Truth is always specific, it is always associated with a specific place, time and circumstances.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">6. Are the following judgments about true and false in knowledge true?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. All phenomena of reality can be assessed from the point of view of truth or falsity.
B. False knowledge accepted as true is a delusion.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#ff0000">Comment;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">. Misconception content of the subject's knowledge that does not correspond to the reality of the object, but accepted as truth. Sources of misconceptions: errors in the transition from sensory to rational knowledge, incorrect transfer of someone else's experience. False deliberate distortion of the image of the object.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">7. Are the following judgments about practice as a criterion of truth correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Practice is the criterion of the truth of our knowledge about the world.
B. Practice this is not the only criterion of truth, because there are phenomena that are inaccessible to practical influence on them.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">8. Are the following judgments about the criteria for the truth of knowledge correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. The criterion for the truth of knowledge is simplicity, clarity and consistency of knowledge.
B. The criterion for the truth of knowledge is the practical orientation of knowledge.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">9. Are the following judgments about practice as a criterion of truth true? Practice is a relative criterion of truth, because;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Not all phenomena can be assessed as true or false.
B. There are phenomena that are inaccessible for practical influence on them.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#ff0000">Comment;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">. Criteria of truth that which certifies truth and allows us to distinguish it from error. Possible criteria of truth: compliance with the laws of logic; compliance with previously discovered laws of science; compliance with fundamental laws; simplicity , economy of the formula; paradoxicality of the idea; practice a holistic organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain sociocultural context: material production (labor, transformation of nature); social action(revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.); scientific experiment. In philosophy, an idea is put forward: the leading criterion of truth is practice.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">10. Are the following judgments about cognition correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Understanding the world can occur in the process Everyday life.
B. The object of knowledge can be a person.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">11. Are the following judgments true about the diversity of forms of human knowledge?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Experience of everyday life is one of the ways of understanding the world.
B.I scientific knowledge, and knowledge acquired in everyday life is characterized by theoretical validity of conclusions.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">12. Are the following judgments true about the diversity of forms of human knowledge?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. The functions of an artistic image in art are similar to the functions of a concept in science.
B. Artistic images are just the result of fiction, they do not reflect reality.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">13. Are the following statements correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Science and religion are forms of knowledge of the world
B. Religion and science form two different types of worldviews for humanity.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">14. Are the following statements correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. A feature of social cognition is the influence of the researcher’s position on the assessment of facts.
B. The scientific study of society requires an objective approach to facts.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">15. Are the following judgments about cognition correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. The structure of cognition includes goal, means, and result.
B. Cognition requires the presence of an object and a subject of cognition.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">16. Are the following statements correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Concept, judgment, inference create a sensory image of an object.
B. Inference is a logical connection of judgments.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">17. Are the following judgments about the forms of knowledge correct?;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
A. Results sensory knowledge exist in the form of images.
B. Results rational knowledge are fixed in sign systems and in language.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#ff0000">Comment;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">.;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Knowledge;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333"> the result of knowledge of reality, the content of consciousness received by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relationships of the real world.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">The polysemy of the term “knowledge”:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Types of knowledge:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
1) everyday is built on common sense;
2) practical is built on actions, mastery of things, transformation of the world;
3) artistic is built on an image;
4) scientific is built on concepts;
5) rational reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking;
6) irrational reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, anomalous and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science;
7) personal (implicit) depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Forms of knowledge:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
1) scientific objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge;
2) unscientific scattered, unsystematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws;
3) pre-scientific prototype, prerequisites of scientific knowledge;
4) parascientific incompatible with existing scientific knowledge;
5) pseudoscientific deliberately using speculation and prejudice:
6) anti-scientific utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality.

According to most thinkers, for something to be considered knowledge, it must satisfy three criteria:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">be confirmed;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">be true;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">trustworthy.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Cognition;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333"> process of human activity, the main content of which is reflection objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

Sensory cognition cognition through the senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch).

Rational cognition cognition through thinking.

Intuition the ability to directly comprehend the truth as a result of “insight”, “inspiration”, “insight” without relying on logical justifications and evidence.
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
Forms of sensory knowledge:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
1) sensation is a reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process;
2) perception sensory image of a holistic picture of an object;
3) representation image of the object of cognition, imprinted in memory.
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
Forms of rational knowledge:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
1) concept is a thought that asserts the general and essential properties of an object, phenomenon, process;
2) judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, phenomenon, process;
3) inference (conclusion) mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them. Types of inference: inductive (from particular to general); deductive (from general to specific); Similarly.
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
Types of intuition;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">mystical is associated with life experiences, emotions; intellectual is associated with mental activity.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Features of sensory cognition:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">spontaneity; visibility and objectivity; reproduction of external properties and aspects.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Features of rational cognition:;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">reliance on the results of sensory cognition; abstraction and generalization; reproduction of internal regular connections and relationships.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answers;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">:

;font-family:"Verdana"">task number

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;font-family:"Verdana"">answer

;font-family:"Verdana"">2

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;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">The topic “Global problems of our time” presented certain difficulties for graduates. When working on this material, it is advisable to clearly define the essence of the concept of “global problems”: they are characterized by the fact that they manifest themselves in on a global scale; they threaten the survival of humanity as a biological species; they can be solved by the efforts of all humanity. Next, we can identify the most important global problems (the environmental crisis, the problem of preventing a world war, the problem of the “North” and “South”, etc.). signs and specify them using examples of social life. In addition, it is necessary to clearly understand the essence of the globalization process.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#085991">Task examples

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1. Are the following judgments about the global problems of our time correct?

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A. All global problems are closely interconnected.

B. Economic and political globalization are one of the characteristics of the global world.

1) only A is correct
2) only B is correct
3) both A and B are true
4) both judgments are incorrect

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#333333">Answers: 3

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2. Find in the list below the features that distinguish global problems from other problems of humanity:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1) require joint efforts of the states of the world for their resolution
2) arose in the second half of the last century
3) reflect the contradiction between people’s needs and capabilities
4) caused by a lack of natural resources
5) are large-scale in nature
6) give rise to social conflicts

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#333333">Answer: 125

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3. Establish a correspondence between examples of manifestation and characteristics of global problems: for each definition given in the first column, select the corresponding concept from the second column.

;font-family:"Verdana";text-decoration:underline;color:#333333">Answer:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">4	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">5
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">Q6: Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">"Spiritual __________ (A) emerged at a certain stage of human development into a special sphere of activity. The products of this activity exist in _____________ (B) individuals. They are expressed in ______________ (C) form language, religion, art styles, etc. Some elements of culture acquire the character of “eternal” values, determine ___________ (G) and purpose human life. For spiritual production, a material base is needed: schools, theaters, museums, publishing houses, and mass media. In the sphere of spiritual production there are a number of ________________ (D), such as the church, education, science, art, as well as individual specialists. Products of spiritual production represent ____________ (E) cultural experience of contemporaries and all previous generations.”

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can be used only once. Select one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Pay attention to that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the blanks.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">List of terms:

1) social status;
2) synthesis;
3) sign-symbolic;
4) consciousness;
5) social institution;
6) production;
7) society;
8) meaning;
9) oral.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">G	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">D	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">E
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">6	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">4	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">8	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">5	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">B6: Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.
Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">"Society is dynamic: both individuals and social groups are constantly changing their ________ (A). This phenomenon is called social ________ (B). Sociologists distinguish several types of it. Movements that do not change the social status of individuals and groups are called ________ (B) mobility. Examples are the transition from one age group to another, a change of place of work, as well as the relocation of people from one area or country to another, i.e. ________ (D). ).________ (D);font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">mobility presupposes a qualitative change in a person’s social status. Examples could be the acquisition or deprivation of a noble title in a feudal society, a professional career in a modern society, etc. Channels of mobility are social ________ (E): family, school, property, church, army, etc.”

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

List of terms:

1) migration;
2) mobility;
3) horizontal;
4) institute;
5) status;
6) vertical;
7) group;
8) stratification;
9) marginalization.

The table below shows the letters that indicate missing words. Write down the number of the word you chose in the table under each letter.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">G	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">D	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">E
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">5	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">6	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">4

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">Q5: Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">(A) The next International Festival of Design, Decorative and Applied Arts and Folk Arts took place in the capital. (B) This year it received a topical focus and became more modern . (IN);font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">The level of submitted works has increased significantly. (D) The previously existing gap between the “medal” projects and all the others could not be considered acceptable.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

1) factual nature;

Answer:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">G
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">B5: Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">(A);font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">More and more people in the world are using mobile phones: They not only make or answer calls, but also correspond via SMS messages. (B);font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">The habit of communicating using short simple texts can lead to a person forgetting how to talk heart to heart, delve into the intonations of the interlocutor and sympathize with him. (B) In a number of European countries, dozens phone users were diagnosed with “SMS addiction”. (D) Department specialists bad habits One of the clinics recorded that people suffering from this disease can write SMS messages for seven or more hours a day.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Determine which provisions of the text are:

1) factual nature;
2) the nature of value judgments.

Write down in the table under the letter indicating the position a number expressing its character.

Answer:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">A	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">B	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">G
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1	;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1. The concept of a social institution.

2. The essence of the state:
a) state public authority;
b) the difference between the state and non-state political organizations.

3. Forms of state:
a) the concept of the form of the state;
b) forms of government;
c) forms of government;
d) forms of political regime.

4. Functions of the state:
a) concepts of state functions;
b) classification of state functions;
c) internal and external functions of the state.

5. Features of the state in the modern world.

Obviously, such a scheme can be applied to almost any topic. The point of drawing up a plan in our case is to present the proposed specific topic in its integrity and correlation of its various aspects.

To competently complete these tasks, you must clearly know the criteria by which each is assessed. These criteria are presented in collections of Unified State Exam training tasks. I provide a memo-algorithm for working with text on the Unified State Exam:

1. Read the text carefully. Remember: direct answers to questions or hints for formulating answers are contained in the text;

2. Correlate the proposed text with the course studied and determine which content line this text is connected to. This will help you rely on the studied material when completing assignments;

3. Give an answer to the question: “What is the text about?” - and determine its main idea;

4. Try to answer the questions in order, since they are formulated according to the principle “from simple to complex.” The answer to the first question can be the basis for doing the following;

5. Read the questions carefully, trying to understand the task completely;

6. Answer the question exactly;

7. Remember that completing the task requires reliance on the text, personal experience, and material studied in the course;

8. Try to give a logically coherent answer containing clear formulations; ;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

9. Avoid incomplete answers; ;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

10. Do not use unnecessary generalizations and interpretations of the author’s text where the task does not require it;

11. Having formulated an answer, check its correctness: return to the text and find in it key words and phrases that confirm your conclusions.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#085991">Example

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Read the text and complete tasks C1 C4.

Man can exist only if other organisms exist, namely green plants. However, its existence on our planet differs sharply from the existence of other organized beings. The intelligence that distinguishes it gives living matter amazing features, profoundly changing its effect on the environment.

The mind changes everything. Guided by it, a person uses the substance that surrounds him - inert and living - not only to build his body, but also for the needs of his social life. And this use is already a great geological force.

In this way, reason introduces new powerful processes into the mechanism of the earth’s crust, the likes of which did not exist before the advent of man. Man... changes appearance, chemical and mineralogical composition of the environment, its habitat. Its habitat is the entire earth's surface. His activities become more powerful and more organized with every century.
Based on this great victory, man destroyed “virgin nature.” He introduced into it a mass of unknown new chemical compounds and new forms of life - cultivated breeds of animals and plants.

After many hundreds of thousands of years of steady striving, the coverage of the entire surface of the biosphere by a single social species of the animal kingdom - man - has been completed. There is no corner on Earth that is inaccessible to him. There are no limits to its possible reproduction.
For the first time, man really understood that he is an inhabitant of the planet and can - must - think and act not only in the aspect of an individual, family or clan, state or their unions, but also in the planetary aspect. He, like all living things, can think and act in the planetary aspect only in the area of life - in the biosphere, in a certain earthly shell, with which he is inextricably linked, naturally connected and from which he cannot leave.
(V.I. Vernadsky)

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C1. According to the author, the existence of man on Earth is sharply different from the existence of other living beings. Does he remain a “son of nature”? How does the author argue for his conclusion?

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:
1) affirmative answer;

2) argument (a person can live and act only in a certain earthly shell, subject to the existence of living organisms).

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C2. In what four aspects, according to V.I. Vernadsky, can and should a person think? Based on the text and knowledge of the course, indicate in solving which problems it is especially necessary planetary thinking.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:

1) aspects:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">individual;>
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">family or clan;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">states or their allies;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">planets in general;

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333;background:#ffffff">2) it is said that planetary thinking is especially important when solving global problems.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C3. The author writes about the continuous connection of man with the earth's shell, the biosphere. Based on the text, knowledge of the course, facts of public life and personal social experience, provide any three confirmations of this connection .

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:
The correct answer may include the following evidence:

1) the biosphere creates certain climatic conditions, provides water and breathing necessary for humans;

2) conditions of the biosphere influence human economic activity (economic specialization of regions);

3) natural conditions influence the forms of social organization of people.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C4. In the text, written in the first quarter of the 20th century, the author actually proclaims a hymn to man, and calls his victories in relations with nature great. Formulate three possible reasons for this statement.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">Answer:
The answer may include the following reasons:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">the first decades of the last century were marked by major achievements in science, the emergence of many technical innovations;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">in our country there was an idea about the limitless possibilities of man in transforming nature, and the author shares it;
;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">the negative impact of human economic activity on the environment was not yet so obvious.

Most students, retelling the content of paragraphs for a good grade, find themselves helpless in a situation where they need to apply the acquired knowledge. Their social science knowledge is formal in nature, acquired at the verbal level and has not become an instrument of socialization (schoolchildren will not be able to apply it in real life to solve emerging social problems), nor a condition that provides the opportunity to further improve their educational level. This is confirmed by the results of tasks C5-C7, which require complex intellectual skills, including the ability to understand and apply theoretical principles in a given context, to reveal with examples the most important theoretical principles and concepts of the social and human sciences, to give examples of certain social phenomena, actions, situations; concretize the theoretical principles of the course with the help of examples, apply social and humanitarian knowledge to solve cognitive and practical problems that reflect current problems of human life and society. The percentage of completion of tasks C5, C6 and C7 in the 2009 exam was 29%, 30%, 23%, respectively.

Philosophy: lecture notes Shevchuk Denis Aleksandrovich

7. Truth and its criteria

The main goal of knowledge is the achievement of scientific truth. In relation to philosophy, truth is not only the goal of knowledge, but also the subject of research. We can say that the concept of truth expresses the essence of science. Philosophers have long been trying to develop a theory of knowledge that would allow us to consider it as a process of obtaining scientific truths. The main contradictions along this path arose in the course of contrasting the activity of the subject and the possibility of his developing knowledge corresponding to the objective real world.

But truth has many aspects, it can be viewed from the very various points point of view: logical, sociological, epistemological, and finally, theological.

What is truth?

The origins of the so-called classical philosophical concept of truth go back to the era of antiquity. For example, Plato believed that “he who speaks of things in accordance with what they are speaks the truth, but he who speaks of them differently lies.” For a long time, the classical concept of truth dominated the theory of knowledge. Basically, she proceeded from the position: what is affirmed by thought actually takes place. And in this sense, the concept of correspondence of thoughts to reality coincides with the concept of “adequacy”. In other words, truth – this is a property of the subject, consisting in the agreement of thinking with itself, with its a priori (pre-experimental) forms. So, in particular, I. Kant believed. Subsequently, truth began to mean the property of ideal objects themselves, unrelated to human knowledge, and a special type of spiritual values. Augustine developed the doctrine of the innateness of true ideas. Not only philosophers, but also representatives of special sciences are faced with the question of what is meant by reality, how to perceive reality or the real world?

Materialists and idealists identify the concept of reality, reality with the concept of the objective world, that is, with that which exists outside and independently of man and humanity. However, man himself is part of the objective world. Therefore, without taking this circumstance into account, it is simply impossible to clarify the question of truth. Taking into account the current trends in philosophy, taking into account the originality of individual statements expressing Subjective opinion one or another scientist the truth can be defined as an adequate reflection of objective reality by a cognizing subject, during which the cognizable object is reproduced as it exists outside and independently of consciousness. Consequently, truth is included in the objective content of human knowledge.

But once we are convinced that the process of cognition is not interrupted, then the question arises about the nature of truth. After all, if a person perceives the objective world in a sensory way and forms ideas about it in the process of individual cognition and his mental activity, then the natural question is: how can he verify the correspondence of his statements to the objective world itself?

So we are talking about criteria of truth, the identification of which is one of the most important tasks of philosophy. And on this issue there is no agreement among philosophers. The extreme point of view comes down to a complete denial of the criterion of truth, because, according to its supporters, truth is either absent at all, or, in short, it is characteristic of everything.

Idealists - supporters of rationalism - considered thinking itself as a criterion of truth, since it has the ability to clearly and distinctly present an object. Philosophers such as Descartes and Leibniz proceeded from the idea of self-evidence of primary truths, comprehended with the help of intellectual intuition. Their arguments were based on the ability of mathematics to objectively and impartially reflect the diversity of the real world in its formulas. True, another question arose: how, in turn, can one be convinced of the reliability of their clarity and distinctness?

Logic with its rigor of proof and its irrefutability should have come to the rescue here. Thus, I. Kant allowed only a formal logical criterion of truth, according to which knowledge must be consistent with the universal formal laws of understanding and reason.

But reliance on logic did not eliminate difficulties in searching for the criterion of truth. It turned out to be not so easy to overcome the internal consistency of thinking itself; it turned out that sometimes it is impossible to achieve formal-logical consistency of judgments developed by science with the original or newly introduced statements (conventionalism). Even the rapid development of logic, its mathematization and division into many special areas, as well as attempts at semantic (semantic) and semiotic (sign) explanations of the nature of truth did not eliminate the contradictions in its criteria.

Subjective idealists - supporters of sensationalism - saw the criterion of truth in the immediate evidence of the sensations themselves, in the consistency scientific concepts with sensory data. Subsequently it was introduced verifiability principle received its name from the concept of verification of a statement (checking its truth). According to this principle, every statement ( scientific statement) is only meaningful or meaningful if it can be verified. The main emphasis is placed precisely on the logical possibility of clarification, and not on the actual one. For example, due to the underdevelopment of science and technology, we cannot observe physical processes, going to the center of the Earth. But through assumptions based on the laws of logic, it is possible to put forward an appropriate hypothesis. And if its provisions turn out to be logically consistent, then it should be recognized as true.

It is impossible not to take into account other attempts to identify the criterion of truth with the help of logic, characteristic especially for philosophical direction called logical positivism. Supporters of the leading role of human activity in cognition tried to overcome the limitations of logical methods in establishing the criterion of truth. The pragmatic concept of truth was substantiated, according to which the essence of truth should be seen not in accordance with reality, but in accordance with the so-called “ultimate criterion”. Its purpose is to establish the usefulness of truth for practical actions and actions of a person. It is important to note that from the point of view of pragmatism, utility itself is not a criterion of truth, understood as the correspondence of knowledge to reality. In other words, the reality of the external world is inaccessible to man, since man directly deals with the results of his activities. That is why the only thing he is able to establish is not the correspondence of knowledge to reality, but the effectiveness and practical usefulness of knowledge. It is the latter, acting as the main value of human knowledge, that deserves to be called truth.

And yet, philosophy, overcoming extremes and avoiding absolutization, has come closer to a more or less correct understanding of the criterion of truth. It couldn’t be otherwise: if humanity were faced with the need to question not only the consequences of the momentary activities of this or that person (in some, and not uncommon, cases very far from the truth), but also to deny their own centuries-old history, life would be impossible to perceive otherwise than as absurdity.

Only the concept of objective truth, based on the concept of objective reality, makes it possible to successfully develop the philosophical concept of truth. Let us emphasize once again that the objective or real world does not simply exist on its own, but when it comes to knowing it, it is set through practice. The limited practical capabilities of a person is one of the reasons for the limitations of his knowledge, that is, we are talking about the relative nature of truth. Relative truth - This is knowledge that reproduces the objective world approximately, incompletely. Therefore, the signs or features of relative truth are proximity and incompleteness, which are interconnected. Indeed, the world is a system of interconnected elements; any incomplete knowledge about it as a whole will always be inaccurate, coarse, and fragmentary.

At the same time, the concept is also used in philosophy absolute truth. With its help, an important aspect of the development of the cognition process is characterized. Let us note that the concept of absolute truth in philosophy is not sufficiently developed (with the exception of its metaphysical, idealistic branch, where absolute truth, as a rule, correlates with the idea of God as the original creative and creative force).

The concept of absolute truth is used to characterize one or another specific aspect of any true knowledge and in this sense it is similar to the concepts of “objective truth” and “relative truth”. The concept of absolute truth should be considered in inextricable connection with the process of cognition itself. This same process is, as it were, a movement along the steps, meaning a transition from less perfect scientific ideas to more perfect ones, however, the old knowledge is not discarded, but is at least partially included in the system of new knowledge. It is this inclusion, reflecting continuity (in the historical sense), internal and external integrity of knowledge and representing truth as a process, that constitutes the content of the concept of absolute truth.

Let us recall once again that, first of all, human material activity affects material world. But when it comes to scientific knowledge, this is what we mean. that from the whole variety of properties inherent in the objective world, only those that constitute a historically determined object of knowledge stand out. That is why practice, which has absorbed knowledge, is a form of its direct connection with objective objects and things. This is where it manifests itself the function of practice as a criterion of truth.

We looked at the basic principles of cognition. It remains to emphasize the difference that takes place in the course of cognition, on the one hand, of the world of living and inanimate nature, and on the other, of human society, man, that is, social development. In the latter case, the problems of scientific knowledge acquire even greater specificity and require more intense philosophical efforts.

Control questions

1. The principle of consistency, its significance in understanding the world.

2. Subject and object of knowledge, dialectics of their relationship.

3. Sensual and rational in knowledge: their unity and the essence of their differences.

4. Structure of the cognitive process.

5. Levels of knowledge: empirical and theoretical, abstract and concrete.

6. Knowability of the world. The concept of truth.

7. The place and role of computer science in the cognitive process.

From the book The Bible of Rajneesh. Volume 3. Book 1 author Rajneesh Bhagwan Shri

From the book The Open Society and Its Enemies author Popper Karl Raymund

2. Criteria The most essential thing now is to realize and clearly make the following distinction: it is one thing to know what meaning the term “truth” has or under what conditions a certain statement is called true, and another thing to have

From the book Evolutionary Theory of Knowledge [innate structures of cognition in the context of biology, psychology, linguistics, philosophy and theory of science] author Vollmer Gerhard

Consistency and other criteria Although theories are not provable (absolutely), there are, however, other criteria according to which they can be tested and evaluated (80). For formal theories, e.g. in mathematics, a necessary condition is internal

From book Social philosophy author Krapivensky Solomon Eliazarovich

Criteria social progress The world community's thoughts about the “limits of growth” have significantly updated the problem of criteria for social progress. Indeed, if in the environment around us social world not everything is as simple as it seemed and seems to progressives,

From the book Cheat Sheets on Philosophy author Nyukhtilin Victor

27. Problems of true knowledge in philosophy. Truth, error, lies. Criteria for true knowledge. Characteristics of practice and its role in cognition The purpose of any philosophical knowledge- achievement of truth. Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to what exists. Therefore, problems

From the book The Concept of Consciousness by Ryle Gilbert

(7) Criteria of Motives So far I have argued that the performance of an action on the basis of a certain motive must be explained not by some mysterious reason, but by subsuming it under some predisposition or line of behavior. But this is still not enough. Let's accept this formula

From the book Favorites: Theology of Culture author Tillich Paul

2. Truth of faith and scientific truth There is no contradiction between faith in its true nature and reason in its true nature. This means that there is no essential contradiction between faith and the cognitive function of the mind. Knowledge in all its forms is always

From the book Literaturocracy author Berg Mikhail Yurievich

3. Truth of faith and historical truth The nature of historical truth is very different from the nature of natural scientific truth. History reports unique events, not repetitive processes that can be subject to constant scrutiny. Historical events Not

From the book The Russian Idea: A Different Vision of Man by Thomas Shpidlik

5. The truth of faith and its criteria In what sense is it then possible to talk about the truth of faith if it cannot be assessed from the position of any other truth, for example, scientific, historical, philosophical? The answer to this question follows from the nature of faith as a state of ultimate

From the book EXISTENCE ENLIGHTENMENT author Jaspers Karl Theodor

IV. Criteria and strategies for success

From the book Gottfried Leibniz author Narsky Igor Sergeevich

From the book of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) author Sagadeev Artur Vladimirovich

1. Truth as one truth and as many truths.

- The fact that existence distinguishes truths - the truth that I know as convincing, the truth to which I am involved (idea), the truth that I myself am - allows it itself to become actual. Only convincing, due to rationality author From the book History of Marxism-Leninism. Book two (70s – 90s of the 19th century)

Team of authors author From the book Popular Philosophy. Tutorial

Gusev Dmitry Alekseevich

3. Philosopher and society: truth and “truth” Ibn Rushd, as just mentioned, warned philosophers against devoting theologians to their innermost thoughts. And this is understandable: since in reality the theologians still had real power, they could bring

From the author's book

Criteria of the formational approach The materialist understanding of history as an integral concept appeared in the works of the founders of Marxism not only as a theory of society and its history, but also as a method of understanding socio-historical phenomena. One of the most important

2. Features and criteria of science Science as an independent form of spiritual culture is characterized by a number of specific features that distinguish it from other forms of spiritual culture. Let us list the most important features of science.1. Science studies only what exists, that is, what already exists

The concept of truth is leading in the philosophy of the name. All problems of the philosophy of the theory of knowledge concern either the means and ways of achieving truth, or the forms of its implementation, the structure of cognitive relations, etc.

How can any concept that has been proven to be true turn out to be false in practice? In this case, we will come to the recognition that today's theory (theories) - sociological, biological, physical, philosophical - are true only “today”, and in 100-300 years they will already be delusions? The alternative assertion that Democritus’ concept is a delusion must also be rejected. So, the atomistic concept of the ancient world, the atomistic concept of the 17th-18th centuries. neither truth nor error.

Classical concept of truth

The concept according to which truth is the correspondence of thoughts to reality is called classical. It is the oldest of all concepts of truth. This is where the theoretical study of truth begins. The classical concept has always been closer to the material than to the ideal. Only within the framework of materialism did it receive its full development.

The central concept of the classical concept is the concept of correspondence of thoughts to reality. When they say that a thought corresponds to reality, they mean the following: what is affirmed by the thought actually takes place. The concept of compliance coincides with the concept of “reproduction”, “adequacy”.

Another important concept of the classical concept is the concept of reality, or reality. When cognition is focused on the external world, then this concept is identified with the concept of the objective world. However, in the context of the theory of truth, such an interpretation is indeed still narrow. This concept claims to be universal, to accept the concept of truth not only to thoughts addressed to the objective world, but also to thoughts related to objects of any nature, including mental objects.

In any case, can a thought that corresponds to reality be qualified as truth? What is essential here is what a thought is in terms of its logical form. Concepts: hydrogen atom, and the like. Logically, they are the essence of concepts. The first exists in real world, the second - no. In the latter case, the concept has no objective content, but this logical form in any case is devoid of true meaning. In the logical literature it is almost generally accepted that the bearers of true meaning can be judgments or statements represented by declarative sentences.

In foreign philosophical and logical literature, a distinction is sometimes made between simply narrative sentences and statements. Some authors believe that truth is not associated with any declarative sentences, but only with those that have the nature of statements.

But not all statements from the point of view of the classical concept are carriers true values. There is also a class of statements that are neither true nor false. Typically, in the classical concept, only those sentences that are descriptive (descriptive) are accepted as truth. Sentences that are not descriptive are considered to lack true meaning.

This concept encountered a number of problems:

a) The problem of nature, knowable reality.

A person in his cognition directly deals not with the objective world “in itself,” but in the form in which it (the world) is sensually perceived and conceptually comprehended. Facts that correspond to true knowledge and which are defined as what takes place, are elements of the non-objective, sensory-perceived and conceptually meaningful world.

This situation creates certain difficulties. According to the correspondence theory of truth, facts are thought-independent premises of truth that beliefs must conform to if they are true. But facts are not independent of thinking and cannot be so, because they carry a conceptual load.

b) Character problem. Correspondence of thoughts to reality.

The classical concept of truth views this correspondence as a simple copying of reality by thoughts. This correspondence is associated with a number of convections and agreements. So D. Hashlin writes: “It is often said that the correspondence theory cannot even be the basis for assessing a certain position as true. For this theory assumes that there is a simple relation between languages and the world, that statements are copies of the world. The language is not actually like this copy, so this theory is wrong."

c) The problem of the criterion of truth.

If a person is in direct contact not with the world “in himself”, but with the sensually perceived and conceptualized world, then the question is: how can he check whether his statements correspond to reality? If the correspondence or inconsistency of individual, particular statements is “observable” for the researcher, then the same cannot be said about universal statements. The universality of the proposal creates difficulties for its verification.

The classical concept in any reality leads to a logical contradiction, called the “liar paradox”. According to the classical concept, truth is the correspondence of a statement to some referent. However, it does not limit the choice of referents of statements. The referent of a given statement can be the statement itself.

The "liar paradox" is a paradox of the classical concept of truth. It has been taken by some philosophers as evidence of its logical inconsistency.

(based on the materials of the FIPI analytical report on the results of the Unified State Exam 2011)

Problems with mastering the material on the topic under consideration were also revealed by the task with a detailed answer C5. 32% of respondents were able to explain the meaning that social scientists put into the concept of “truth” and compose sentences containing social scientific information about this concept. Another 37% were only able to compose one sentence.

I propose to complete a series of tasks to analyze two judgments on the topics “Types of knowledge” and “The concept of truth, its criteria.”

1.
A. Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to human interests.
B. Truth is the correspondence of thought to reality.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

2. Are the following truth statements true? Truth is
A. Objective reflection of objects and phenomena in human consciousness.
B. The result of knowledge, existing only in the form of concepts, judgments and theories.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

A comment . In order to complete these two tasks, you need to remember what truth is. There are different interpretations of the concept of “truth”.

Truth is:
- correspondence of knowledge to reality;
- what is confirmed by experience;
- some kind of agreement, convention;
- property of self-consistency of knowledge;
- usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.

3. Are the following truth statements true?
A. Truth is relative, because the world is changeable and infinite.
B. Truth is relative, because the possibilities of knowledge are determined by the level of development of science.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

4. Are the judgments correct?
A. Any truth is objective and relative.
B. Absolute truth is practically unattainable.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

5. Are the following statements true? Relative truth is knowledge
A. Not everyone agrees with it.
B. Incomplete, true only under certain conditions.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

A comment . Objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on either man or humanity.

Absolute truth is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

The difference between absolute and relative truths (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always specific, it is always associated with a specific place, time and circumstances.

6. Are the following judgments about true and false in knowledge true?
A. All phenomena of reality can be assessed from the point of view of truth or falsity.
B. False knowledge accepted as true is a delusion.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

A comment . Misconception is the content of the subject's knowledge that does not correspond to the reality of the object, but is accepted as truth. Sources of misconceptions: errors in the transition from sensory to rational knowledge, incorrect transfer of other people's experience. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.

7. Are the following judgments about practice as a criterion of truth true?
A. Practice is a criterion for the truth of our knowledge about the world.
B. Practice is not the only criterion of truth, because there are phenomena that are inaccessible to practical influence on them.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

8. Are the following judgments about the criteria for the truth of knowledge true?
A. The criterion for the truth of knowledge is simplicity, clarity and consistency of knowledge.
B. The criterion for the truth of knowledge is the practical orientation of knowledge.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

9. Are the following judgments about practice as a criterion of truth correct? Practice is a relative criterion of truth because
A. Not all phenomena can be assessed as true or false.
B. There are phenomena that are inaccessible for practical influence on them.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

A comment . The criteria of truth are what certify the truth and allow us to distinguish it from error. Possible criteria of truth: compliance with the laws of logic; compliance with previously discovered laws of science; compliance with fundamental laws; simplicity, economy of the formula; paradoxical idea; practice. Practice is a holistic organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context. Forms of practice: material production (labor, transformation of nature); social action (revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.); scientific experiment. In philosophy, the idea is put forward: the leading criterion of truth is practice.

10. Are the following judgments about cognition true?
A. Knowledge of the world can occur in the process of everyday life.
B. The object of knowledge can be a person.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

11. Are the following judgments about the diversity of forms of human knowledge true?
A. The experience of everyday life is one of the ways to understand the world.
B. Both scientific knowledge and knowledge obtained in everyday life are characterized by theoretical validity of conclusions.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

12. Are the following judgments about the diversity of forms of human knowledge true?
A. The functions of an artistic image in art are similar to the functions of a concept in science.
B. Artistic images are just the result of fiction; they do not reflect reality.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

13. Are the following statements true?
A. Science and religion are forms of knowledge of the world
B. Religion and science form two different types of worldviews for humanity.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

14. Are the following statements true?
A. A feature of social cognition is the influence of the researcher’s position on the assessment of facts.
B. The scientific study of society requires an objective approach to facts.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

15. Are the following judgments about cognition true?
A. The structure of cognition includes goal, means, and result.
B. Cognition requires the presence of an object and a subject of cognition.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

16. Are the following statements true?
A. Concept, judgment, inference create a sensory image of an object.
B. Inference is a logical connection of judgments.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both A and B are true;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

17. Are the following judgments about the forms of knowledge true?
A. The results of sensory knowledge exist in the form of images.
B. The results of rational cognition are fixed in sign systems and in language.

1) only A is true;
2) only B is true;
3) both judgments are correct;
4) both judgments are incorrect.

Animals

Part 2.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#085991">Task examples

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">1. Are the following judgments about the global problems of our time correct?

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">2. Find in the list below the features that distinguish global problems from other problems of humanity:

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">3. Establish a correspondence between examples of manifestation and characteristics of global problems: for each definition given in the first column, select the corresponding concept from the second column.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">Q6: Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">B6: Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing. Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">Q5: Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">B5: Read the text below, each position of which is indicated by a specific letter.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#085991">Example

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C1. According to the author, the existence of man on Earth is sharply different from the existence of other living beings. Does he remain a “son of nature”? How does the author argue for his conclusion?

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C2. In what four aspects, according to V.I. Vernadsky, can and should a person think? Based on the text and knowledge of the course, indicate in solving which problems it is especially necessary planetary thinking.

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C3. The author writes about the continuous connection of man with the earth's shell, the biosphere. Based on the text, knowledge of the course, facts of public life and personal social experience, provide any three confirmations of this connection .

;font-family:"Verdana";color:#333333">C4. In the text, written in the first quarter of the 20th century, the author actually proclaims a hymn to man, and calls his victories in relations with nature great. Formulate three possible reasons for this statement.

7. Truth and its criteria

Classical concept of truth

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;font-family:"Verdana";color:#ff0000">B6: Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.
Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.