The best remedy from the blues on a gray cold winter day - a memory of spring Sicily, where not only the blue sky, green grass, red poppies, but also the ruins of Greek temples look life-affirming. Among the most striking places on the island is the archaeological reserve at Selinunte. One of the Doric temples built in southwest Sicily was raised from ruins by twentieth-century restorers:
Selinunte was founded in 628 BC. colonists from Megara Hyblaean, a Greek colony that had appeared in Sicily a century earlier. The founder of the colony was Pamillus, called from the original metropolis - Megara in Greece. There is very little specific information about Selinunte, and this is surprising because the scale of its buildings is fantastic. The remains of 8 Doric temples were found here! But we still don’t know the exact dedication of any of them, so in the literature they are still designated simply by letters. Temple E is not the largest of them. It is dated to 480-460. BC.
Perhaps it was dedicated to Hera. This is a peripter type, with a column ratio of 6 x 15. The eastern facade is highlighted by a staircase consisting of 10 steps. The upward movement continued in the interior, where the floor level increased from one room to another:
I don’t know how it is now, but during our trip we could go inside the temple and walk along the colonnades:
Climb onto the huge stones that make up the walls:
From above, admire the fantastic panoramas of the surrounding area:
The Doric order here is as it should be: reliable, humanized with the help of entasis, warmed by the golden color of local limestone:
But a complete picture of Temple E can only be formed after visiting the Archaeological Museum in Palermo, where the metopes that once adorned this temple are located. They were not located on the outer architrave, but were located behind the columns, in the upper part of the cella:
Interestingly, the limestone here is complemented by marble parts. The heads, arms and legs of the women are made of marble. On this metope, Hercules fights the Amazon:
And here Athena is chasing the giant Enceladus. A very significant episode for Sicily! According to one version of the myth, the goddess, throwing a stone, crushed the giant, and he became the island of Sicily. According to another, more common one, the immortal giant was covered with a huge stone - Mount Etna, and from time to time it makes itself felt by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
And this is such a calm and sweet Artemis poisoning Actaeon with dogs:
We will finish our acquaintance with the sculpture of Temple E with one of the most expressive love scenes that Greek art gave us. This is the meeting of Zeus and Hera. He takes his sister’s hand away from his face, their gazes meet, passion flares up, and Zeus is already pulling Hera to his bed:
Art Ancient Greece played a vital role in the development of culture and art of mankind. It was determined by the social and historical development of this country, deeply different from the development of the countries of the Ancient East. In Greece, despite the presence of slavery, the free labor of artisans played a huge role - until the development of slavery had a destructive effect on it. In Greece, within the framework of a slave-owning society, the first principles of democracy in history developed, which made it possible to develop bold and deep ideas that affirmed the beauty and significance of man.
During the transition to a class society, a number of small city-states, the so-called policies, were formed in Ancient Greece. Despite the presence of numerous economic, political, and cultural ties, the poleis were independent states and each pursued its own policy.
Stages of development of the art of Ancient Greece:
1. Homeric Greece(12-8 centuries BC) - the time of the collapse of the tribal community and the emergence of slave relations. The appearance of the epic and the first, primitive monuments visual arts.
2. Archaic, or the period of formation of slave-owning city-states (7-6 centuries BC) - the time of struggle of ancient democratic artistic culture with the remains and remnants of the old public relations. The formation and development of Greek architecture, sculpture, crafts, the flowering of lyrical poetry.
3 Classic, or the heyday of the Greek city-states (5-4 centuries BC) - a period of high prosperity of philosophy, natural scientific discoveries, the development of poetry (especially drama), a rise in architecture and the complete victory of realism in the fine arts. At the end of this period, the first crisis of the slave society began, the development of the polis came into decline, which in the second half of the 4th century caused a crisis in the art of classics.
3. Hellenistic period (late 4th-1st centuries BC) - a period of short-term recovery from the crisis through the formation of large empires. However, very soon there came an inevitable aggravation of all the insoluble contradictions of slavery. Art is losing the spirit of citizenship and nationality. Further Hellenistic states were conquered by Rome and included in its empire.
The poleis were constantly at enmity with each other, however, they united in the event of an attack on Greece by a common enemy (this was the case with Persia and Macedonia). Every citizen had the right to participate in government. Naturally, there were internal contradictions among free citizens, often expressed in the struggle of the demos (the people) against representatives of the aristocracy.
In Ancient Greece, physical strength and beauty were especially valued: pan-Greek competitions were organized in Olympia (Peloponnesian Peninsula). Time was kept at the Olympics, and statues were erected for the winners. Theatrical performances, initially associated with religious festivities, including those in honor of the patrons of the policies (for example, the festival of the Great Panathenaia for the Athenians), were of great importance in the development of aesthetic perception. The religious views of the Greeks retained their connection with folk mythology, thus religion was intertwined with philosophy and history. Characteristic The mythological basis of Greek art is its anthropomorphism, that is, the deep humanization of mythological images.
Monuments of ancient Greek art for the most part have not reached us in originals; many ancient statues are known to us from marble ancient Roman copies. During the heyday of the Roman Empire (1st-2nd centuries AD), the Romans sought to decorate their palaces and temples with copies of famous Greek statues and frescoes. Since almost all large Greek bronze statues were melted down during the years of destruction ancient society, and the marble ones are mostly destroyed, it is often only by Roman copies, usually also inaccurate, that one can judge a number of masterpieces of Greek culture. Greek painting in the originals has also hardly survived. Frescoes of a late Hellenistic nature, sometimes reproducing earlier examples, are of great importance. Some idea of monumental painting is given by images on Greek vases. Written evidence is also of great importance, the most famous of which are:"Description of Hellas" by Pausanias,"Natural History" by Pliny"Paintings" of Philostratos, senior and junior,"Description of Statues" by Callistratus,"Ten Books on Architecture" by Vitruvius.
Art of Homeric Greece
(12th - 8th centuries BC)
This time was reflected in epic poems -"Iliad" and The Odyssey, which is believed to have been written by Homer. During the Homeric period, Greek society as a whole still retained the tribal system. Ordinary members of the tribe and clan were free farmers, partly shepherds. Slavery had an episodic and patriarchal character; slave labor was used (especially at the beginning) mainly in the household of the tribal leader and military leader - the basileus. Basileus was the head of the tribe, and united in his person judicial, military and priestly power. He governed the community together with the council of elders - boule. In the most important cases a national assembly called the agora was meeting.
The monumental architecture of ancient Greek temples, which originated in the Homeric period, used and in its own way reworked the type of megaron that had developed in Mycenae and Tiryns - a hall with a vestibule and a portico. The expressive ornamental character of the Aegean world was alien to the artistic consciousness of the ancient Greeks.
The earliest that have come down to us works of art are vases“geometric style”, decorated with patterns painted with brown paint on the pale yellow background of the clay vessel. The most complete picture of this style is given by Dipylon vases. These are very large vessels, sometimes as tall as a person, and had a funeral or cult purpose. On Dipylon amphorae the ornamentation is especially abundant: the pattern most often consists of purely geometric motifs, in particular a meander braid (the meander ornament was preserved throughout the development of Greek art). Schematized plant and animal ornaments were also used.
An important feature of later Dipylon vases is the introduction of primitive plot images with schematized figures of people into the pattern. These plot motifs are very diverse: the ritual of mourning the deceased, a chariot race, sailing ships, etc.
The sculpture of this period has reached us onlybut in the form of small plastic works, mostly of a cult nature. These are small figurines depicting gods or heroes, made of terracotta, ivory or bronze.
"Horse" and " Hercules and the centaur", Olympia
"Plowman", Boeotia
Apollo, Boeotia
The monumental sculpture of Homeric Greece has not reached our time. Its character can be judged from the descriptions of ancient authors. The main type of such sculpture were the so-called xoans - idols made of wood or stone.
By the 8th century BC. include the remains of monuments of early Greek architecture.
Temple of Artemis Orthia in Sparta (reconstruction)
The ruins of the temple in Thermos in Aetolia have been preserved andframe at Dreros on Crete. They used some traditions of Mycenaean architecture, mainly a general plan similar to a megaron: the hearth-altar was placed inside the temple, and 2 columns were placed on the facade. The most ancient of these structures had walls made of mud brick and a wooden frame on a stone base.
Greek Archaic Art
(7th-6th centuries BC)
The power of the head of the tribe - the basileus - dates back to the 8th century. BC. was greatly limited by the dominance of the tribal aristocracy - the eupatrides, who concentrated wealth, land, slaves in their hands - and then, in the 7th century. BC, disappeared completely. The archaic period became a time of fierce class struggle between the clan nobility and the people. The Eupatrides sought to enslave free community members, which could lead Greek society along the path of the eastern slave states. It is no coincidence that some monuments of this time resemble ancient Eastern art. The complete or partial victory of the broad mass of free peasants, artisans and merchants led to the establishment of the ancient version of a slave society.
During the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Greek settlements expanded - colonies were formed along the shores of the Mediterranean and Black Sea. Particularly important in later history ancient greek culture had settlements in southern Italy and Sicily - the so-called Magna Graecia.
During the archaic period, a system of architectural orders emerged, which formed the basis for all further development of ancient architecture. At the same time, plot vase painting blossomed and the path to depicting the beautiful, harmoniously developed person. Also important is the composition of lyric poetry, which means interest in the world of a person’s personal feelings.
The evolution of Greek sculpture
In general, the art of the archaic period is conventional and schematic. Ancient myths and tales are widely reflected in the fine arts. Towards the end of the archaic period, themes taken from reality increasingly began to penetrate into art. By the end of the 6th century BC. classical trends begin to come into increasing conflict with the methods and principles of archaic art.
Even in ancient times, Greek art created a new type of building, which became a reflection of the ideas of the people - the Greek temple. The main difference from the temples of the Ancient East was that it was the center major events public life citizens. The temple was the repository of the public treasury and artistic treasures, the square in front of it was a place of meetings and celebrations. The architectural forms of the Greek temple did not develop immediately.
Types of Greek Temples
The temple erected to God always had its main façade facing east, and the temples dedicated to heroes deified after death faced west, towards kingdom of the dead. The simplest and oldest type of stone archaic temple was temple "in the antas." It consisted of one small room - pump, open to the east. On its façade, between antami(i.e., the projections of the side walls) 2 columns were placed. It was not suitable for the main structure of the polis, so it was most often used as a small structure, for example, the treasury in Delphi:
A more advanced type of temple was prostyle, on the front facade of which 4 columns were placed. IN amphiprostyle a colonnade adorned both the front and rear facades, where there was an entrance to the treasury.The classic type of Greek temple was peripter, i.e. the temple had a rectangular shape and was surrounded on all 4 sides by a colonnade. The basic elements of the peripter design are simple and deeply folk in origin. In its origins, the design goes back to wooden architecture with adobe walls. From here there is a gable roof and beams, columns rising to wooden posts. The architects of Ancient Greece sought to develop the artistic possibilities hidden in the design of the building. This is how a clear and integral, artistically meaningful architectural system emerged, which later, among the Romans, received the name warrants, which means order, structure.
In the Archaic era, the Greek order developed in two versions - Doric and Ionic. This corresponded to the two main local schools of art. Doric order embodied the idea of masculinity, and ionic- femininity. Sometimes in the Ionic order the columns were replaced by caryatids - statues of dressed women.
The Greek order system was not a stencil mechanically repeated in every decision. The order was a general system of rules, and the solution was always of a creative individual nature and was consistent not only with the specific tasks of construction, but also with the surrounding nature, and in the classical period - with other buildings of the architectural ensemble.
The Doric temple-peripterus was separated from the ground by a stone foundation - stereobat, which consisted of 3 steps. Login naos(a rectangular temple room) was located behind the colonnade on the side of the main facade and was decorated with a pronaos, reminiscent of a portico in design"Temple in Ants" Sometimes, in addition to the naos, there was also opisthodomous- a room behind the pump, with an exit towards the rear facade. Naos was surrounded on all sides by a colonnade -"pteron"(wing, peripterus - winged temple on all sides).
The column was the most important part warrants. The column of the Doric order in the archaic period was squat and powerful - the height is equal to 4-6 lower diameters. The column trunk was cut through a series of longitudinal grooves - flute. The columns of the Doric order are not geometrically precise cylinders; in addition to the general narrowing upward, they had some uniform thickening at the height of one third - entasis.
The Ionic order column is taller and thinner in proportions, its height is equal to 8-10 lower diameters. It had a base from which it seemed to grow. The flutes, which in the Doric column converged at an angle, in the Ionic column were separated by flat cuts of edges - this made the number of vertical lines seem to double, and due to the fact that the grooves in the Ionic column were cut deeper, the play of light and shadow on it was richer and more picturesque. The capital had an echinus forming 2 graceful curls.
The Doric order system in its main features developed already in the 7th century. BC. (Peloponnese and Magna Graecia), the Ionic order developed towards the end of the 7th century. BC. (Asia Minor and island Greece). Later, in the classical era, the third order was developed - Corinthian - close to the Ionic and distinguished by the fact that in it the columns were more elongated in proportion (up to 12 lower diameters) and were topped with a lush basket-shaped capital, composed of floral ornament - stylized acanthus leaves - and curls (volutes).
Earlier temples often had capitals that were too heavy or column trunks that were too short; the aspect ratio of the temple was often disproportionate. Gradually all the shortcomings disappeared.
Temple of Hera (Heraion) in Olympia, 7th century. BC.
Temple of Apollo in Corinth (Peloponnese), 2nd floor. 6th century BC.
Coloring found its place in archaic architecture; the main colors were most often combinations of red and blue. The tympanums of the pediments and the backgrounds of the metopes, triglyphs and other parts of the entablature were painted, and the sculpture was also painted.
Temples of Ionia, i.e. cities of the coast of Asia Minor and islands, were especially distinguished large sizes and luxury of decoration. This was reflected in the connection with the culture of the East. These temples turned out to be away from the main line of development of Greek architecture. Classical architecture developed all the best aspects of the Ionic order, but remained alien to lush luxury; this feature was developed only in the Hellenistic era. The most famous example of archaic temples in Ionia is the temple of Artemis in Ephesus (2nd half of the 6th century BC) - diptera, more than 100 m in length
Model of a temple in Istanbul in Miniaturk Park
The Archaic period was a period of flourishing of artistic crafts, especially ceramics. Usually vases were covered with artistic painting. In the 7th and especially in the 6th century. BC. A system of permanent forms of vases developed that had different purposes. The amphora was intended for oil and wine, the krater was for mixing water with wine during a feast, they drank wine from the kylix, and incense was stored in the lekythos for libations on the graves of the dead. During the early archaic period (7th century BC), a style imitating the East dominated in Greek vase painting; a number of ornaments were borrowed from the East. In the 6th century. BC. the so-called black-figure vase painting arrived. The patterned ornament was replaced by a clear silhouette pattern.
Black-figure vase painting reached its greatest flowering in Attica. The name of one of the suburbs of Athens, famous in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. by its potters, - Keramik - became the name of products made from baked clay.
Crater of Clytius, made in the workshop of Ergotim (560 BC) or Vase of Francois
The most famous Attic vase painter is Exekius. Among him best works a drawing on an amphora depicting Ajax and Achilles playing dice and an image of Dionysus in a boat (bottom of the kylix):
The vase paintings of another no less famous master Andokidas are known for their realistic motifs, which sometimes conflict with the techniques of planar archaic vase painting: an amphora with the image of Hercules and Cerberus (Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts).
The paintings of late black-figure vases provided, for the first time in Greek art, examples of a multi-figure composition in which all the characters were in real relationship. As realism grew in Greek art, vase painting showed a tendency to overcome flatness. This led around 530. BC. to a whole revolution in the technique of vase painting - to the transition to red-figure vase painting, with light figures on a black background. Excellent examples were created in Andokida's workshop, but all possibilities were fully revealed already during the period of classical art.
The development of archaic sculpture was contradictory. Almost until the very end of the archaic period, strictly frontal and motionless statues of gods were created. This type of statue includes:
Hera from the island of Samos andArtemis from the island of Delos
Goddess with Pomegranate, Berlin Museum
The seated figures of the rulers were distinguished by their oriental spirit ( archons) placed along the road to ancient temple Apollo (Didymeion) near Miletus (in Ionia). These schematic, geometrically simplified stone statues were made very late - in the middle of the 6th century. BC. Images of rulers are interpreted as solemn iconic images. Such statues were often of colossal size, also imitating in this sense Ancient East. Particularly typical of the archaic period were upright naked statues of heroes, or, later, warriors - kouros. The appearance of the image of kouros was of great importance for the development of Greek sculpture; the image of a strong, courageous hero or warrior was associated with the development of civic consciousness and new artistic ideals. The general development of the kouros type went towards ever greater fidelity to proportions and a move away from conventional decorative ornamentation. This required radical shifts in human consciousness, which occurred after the reforms of Cleisthenes and the end of the Greco-Persian wars.
One of the earliest temples of the West is Temple C at Selinunte, c. 540 BC, located in a large group of buildings built on the city's acropolis in the Dorian order. It had an archaic elongated plan (cella without columns), which was framed by an even narrower and longer colonnade (6 x 145 m). The entrance from the east was strongly accentuated by a double row of columns and a staircase of eight steps (four on the sides; this is a traditional solution for Southern Italy). The columns are of different diameters, but inside the proportions are already brought to harmony: aditon and pronaos are almost equal in size. The appearance of the temple was particularly expressive: the columns had more slender proportions than in previous temples, with more developed capitals, the part they carried was exclusively decorative and elegant. On the facade, ten metopes in high relief depicted cosmogonic myths: Perseus and Medusa, Apollo on the quadriga, Hercules and the Cercopes. All the metopes below and above had flat stone projections, as if holding the image within their boundaries. The decor went well with the architectural structure, but was not internally connected with it - it looked like an appliqué applied on top. The long sides of the temple were decorated with a terracotta belt, while the pediment was sculpted - it contained an image of the Gorgon.
A group of buildings from archaic times has also been preserved in Poseidonia (Paestum). In Magna Graecia, dilapidated temples were not demolished, as in the Balkans, but new ones were built nearby. So they stand now at the mouth of the Sela - in a wild area almost untouched by civilization, among swampy plains and meadows; The scorched earth creates a soft tone for the grayish-yellow limestone, and the sparse greenery of trees and flowering bushes against the bottomless sky speaks of the transitory and the eternal.
20. Temple of Hera I in Poseidonia (Paestum).
Among the buildings of Poseidonia, the most remarkable is the Temple of Hera I, formerly called the "Basilica", c. 540 BC, built from pink tuff. Only the roof and decor of the entablature have been lost. A powerful row of dense columns standing on a three-stage stylobate creates an amazing rhythm, sounding like harsh music, like the solemn rhythm of the Dorian mode. Channeled trunks with a sharp curvature (thinner towards the top) form each of the five to seven blocks of stone. They are crowned with large abaci lying on very flat echinae.
It would seem that the temple was built traditionally for the Dorian type: it is a large rectangular building (9 x 8 columns) with an entrance from east side(the western end is blank), with columns far removed from the walls, as was customary in Southern Italy. The interior was divided into three ordinary parts: pronaos - naos - opisthodome, of which the naos was divided into two naves by eight columns. For a late archaic temple, and such a monumental one at that, this is a very rare feature; the outer columns, as in the Olympian Heraion, adjoin the end walls of the cella. Consequently, the odd number of columns (nine) in the portico sandwiched by the “antes” led to the fact that there could not be a central entrance to the temple: a column stood along the axis, as was the case in temples of the 8th century. BC, - Hera on Samos and Apollo in Thermosa (temple C). Moreover, the isolation and separation of the naves was marked by the presence of independent entrances from the pronaos - ceremonial, equipped with steps. Another extraordinary feature is the increased size of the penultimate intercolumnium, between the sixth and seventh columns. Perhaps there was a cult statue there. The strictly linear path was broken only in the northern nave, from which the entrance to the opisthodome opened - one could go there, as before in the aditon, and then, having completed this small circle, leave the temple. The reasons for such a strict division of the two naves, with the emphasized priority of one (northern), are not clear.
According to the researchers, the proportions of the building (24.5 x 54.34 m) fit entirely into the concept of symmetry developed by early architects and based on the ratio of integers. Thus, the entire cella has an aspect ratio of 2:7, without pronaos and opisthodomos 2:5, while the general plan of the building has a ratio of 4:9, which will be repeated in the 5th century. BC. in the Parthenon. The length of the stylobate - 100 Ionian cubits - reflects the magic of the number “100” (remember the Greek “hundred-foot” temples - hecatompedons). In these proportions of the building one can see the influence of the religious thinker Pythagoras.
Nearby, perpendicular to the described temple, already in the Classical era (460-440 BC) the temple of Hera II was built, which even had a pediment preserved.
Southern Italian architecture, which flourished at this time, acquired a somewhat different appearance from the metropolis: here temples were often surrounded by narrow elongated colonnades; hiding much shorter and more compact cellae: i.e. the colonnade retained the outline of the archaic type, and the cella followed a new version of the design. In addition, the colonnade was often moved far away from the walls of the temple, forming wide porticoes, more like galleries and verandas for walking; they gave Italian temples a somewhat expanded appearance, reminiscent of dipterae, but without the inner row of columns in the pterome.
In southern Italian order architecture, there are different solutions to the problem of a religious building. Thus, a variant reminiscent of ancient Minoan-Mycenaean forms is represented by the Temple of Hera on the Silaris River in Poseidonia, ca. 540 BC. Here, next to the large temple (8 x 16), there is another, small one - “in anta”, with four columns on the facade. The object of worship in the large building was in the center of the cella; in the wall opposite the entrance there was an opening through which one entered the opisthodome with a blank back wall. The combination of two sacred buildings was reminiscent of the ancient antithesis of great and small, death and life. If the proximity of buildings was determined by their functional and semantic connection, then rituals of the death of a god could be performed in a large temple, and rebirth rituals in a small one. This concept was known in the Minoan-Mycenaean world: the coexistence of large and small palaces (as, for example, in Knossos), a large tomb with a small branch chamber (Mycenaean tholos of Atreus, Clytemnestra, tholos in Orkhomenes).
In this row huge temple G, or the Temple of Apollo, at Selinunte stands out for its extraordinary design. Along with the traditional features: an elongated rectangular plan, an eastern entrance, a triple division of the internal space into pronaos, naos and opisthodome, as well as three naves separated by ten pairs of columns, it also has specific ones. The opisthodome at Apollonion is cut off from the cella and has an independent western entrance. There was a hint of a second cella, which for now represented the “back room”; subsequently it will develop into an independent part of the interior. In addition, the three-nave cella closed in front of the end wall, forming a circuit around the temple statue. Thus arose the distinct idea of circling the statue of the deity, which had previously been barely visible. And, in addition, it was possible to get into the side naves from the pronaos through special entrances. This is also an important innovation (it was noted above in the extraordinary temple of Hera I in Poseidonia), close to the concept of three-nave Etruscan temples; the side parts were separated from the main one, remaining connected to it by the same idea of detour.
Agrigentum, a colorful, fragrant corner of Sicily, washed by the rays of the sun and caressed by light breezes, must have seemed like a paradise to the settlers from Rhodes and Crete, and, inspired by such beauty, they behaved accordingly, building temples that seemed to defy the gods with their grandeur and arrogant gaze down to the world of mere mortals.
The temple, dedicated to Olympian Zeus and built in commemoration of the English victory over the Carthaginians at the Battle of the Chimera (480-479 BC), is the main source of pride for the Agrigenians. Its huge semi-columns, interspersed with statues of Atlanteans, created the impression that they carried the weight of the entire structure, like Atlas, sentenced by Zeus for helping the tiatans to hold the whole world on their shoulders. The space of the temple could accommodate 42 thousand people during the siege by the Carthaginian army in 406 BC. the entire population of the city took refuge in this temple.
The seven Doric temples surrounding the sacred site were built of gold-studded tuff and were originally covered with a layer of brightly colored polychrome plaster. All of them face east, yes. Chorloba's entrance and the figures of the gods standing in front of it were illuminated by rays rising sun- a symbol of life. Of these temples, the Temple of Concord is the best preserved. Its fluted columns reach 22 feet in height and slope slightly inward. Built in the 5th century. BC.
Somewhat later, at the end of the 6th century. BC, a small temple of Athena was built in Poseidonia, previously considered the temple of Ceres (14.54 x 32.88 m). It already had a more modern structure, with an even number of supports at the ends (6 x 13 columns); The proportions of the pump are very simple - 1:2. The internal organization of space, with four columns of the pronaos, already reveals purely Ionian features. The naos has neither an opisthodome nor a treasury, but there is a very wide entrance, marked by two columns, at which there are two flights of stairs leading to the upper parts of the building (one up, the other down) - eastern line, now appearing in the temples of Agrigentum. In the sanctuaries of Syria and Lebanon there are hypetral temples, with an opening in the roof and stairs leading to it or to open terraces arranged there, which are believed to be intended for fire rituals; Such stairs, later in time, were discovered in Baalbek and Palmyra. It follows from this that the open roof is understood as a platform, and the temple itself is understood as a substructure for it. The path from bottom to top is also eastern idea, implemented in buildings such as Sumerian ziggurats.
The temple of Athena has a preserved pediment, standing on a high entablature, with Dorian triglyphs and metopes and a very wide cornice. Only here is it really felt how powerful a load was pressing on the colonnade and how, through a purely aesthetic expression of the tectonics of masses and their distribution in space, the weight of the “firmament” was overcome.
Temple of Athena in Poseidonia?
Attempts to combine the Dorian order with the Ionian order were made in Greece several times. This case is the first; The most famous experience of such synthesis will be given by Ictinus, one of the creators of the Parthenon, in the mysterious temple of Apollo in Bassae.
The oldest Dorian temple in the metropolis was considered the Temple of Hera at Olympia, built before 600 BC. It stood in the northwestern corner of a sacred site called Altis ("Grove"), opposite the eastern hill of Kronos. The Temple of Hera is already a classic peristyle (49 m long and 17 m wide) - elongated in length, oriented to the cardinal points, with two separate entrances, from the east and west, without a western apse, which is now dying out. The eastern entrance, already “correct”, with an even number of columns along the facade and, accordingly, without the ancient central column blocking the entrance, led into the cella, and the western one into a very shallow opisthodome, but, nevertheless, the appearance of a second entrance (and a second façade) is deeply symptomatic of Greece. Interior olympic temple looked unusual for an ordinary peristyle building. It was divided perpendicularly by lintels extending from the side walls (each of which had a column attached) into compartments - four large ones on each side, and at the end wall they formed a common shallow space in which, obviously, the cult statue of the goddess stood. The lintels, much more expressively than the projections in the Samian temple, divided the space into cells - like internal chapels, temples, each of which could have an individual purpose and, movement along which resembled “diving” from one spatial zone to another. Thus, the path to the goal in the temple of Hera really resembled the swimming of the sun god in the bosom of the ancestral chaos.
The cosmos at Olympia was symbolized by the sacred tree. In historical times, it was the olive, about which, however, no such reliable information has been preserved as about the Acropolis; it is only known that Hercules brought it here from the Hyperborean country. Perhaps, before the olive, the white poplar was revered here, because on the main altar the fire was lit with wood from this tree, for which there was a special priest. In any case, the respect for the ancient columns of the temple (6 x 16) speaks about the veneration of the tree. Primarily all were wooden, they were gradually replaced by stone ones, so that Pausanias in the 2nd century. I also found one surviving wooden column. This phenomenon is interesting for the history of the development of the ancient order. The displacement of wood by stone, step by step, century by century, transformed the appearance of ancient shrines and determined the coexistence in them of different ideas, different materials and forms; The most ancient buildings of the Greeks, such as the Temple of Hera at Olympia, could afford to be “inartistic” and “archaic.” The materials of the temple were also symbolic: the walls of the temple, made of raw brick, stood on a stone plinth, the columns were originally wooden, gradually replaced by stone ones, the ceiling was made of wood, the roof was lined with clay tiles and decorated with large (2.25 m in diameter) acroteries from terracotta.
The ancient division of the cella into two naves replaced the new one - three-nave. At the same time, the principle of binaryity (the division of chaos into two creators) moved to the structural level: the cella began to be divided in two transversely.
A similar phenomenon in its completed form was noted in the temple of Athena Polyada on the Athenian Acropolis, called Hekatompedon - Stofutov. "Hundred-foot" temples are typical Greek archaic– 100 feet was a kind of modular measure for the “ideal” temple. Already greatly reduced in length (6 x 12 columns), it was divided by a transverse wall into two equal parts, dedicated to the two consort gods. The eastern one was given to Athena, the western one - to Poseidon. The first was entered through the eastern portico; a short three-nave hall (3 x 2 columns) opened in front of the visitor. Perhaps here stood the cult statue of a seated Athena with a gorgoneion on her chest, which previously, before the construction of the Parthenon, was given a new peplos at the festival of the Great Panathenaia. The western entrance led to a deep opisthodome, from which two other entrances opened into a double adyton. Why were there two ritual rooms? For Erechtheus and Cecrops, the most ancient kings of Attica, revered on the Acropolis in classical times? Or for other ritual figures? It is curious that the “male” part is built, as in the temple of Apollo in Corinth, according to the type of path, and the “female” - according to the type of Minoan epiphany, which was discussed above in connection with the model of the sanctuary from Archanes: approached the temple, opened the door and was dumbfounded - at the miracle of the appearance of the goddess.
Temple of Athena Aphaia on the island of Aegina. About 500-480 BC
The Dorian temple of Athena Aphaia on the island of Aegina completes the line of development. It is dedicated to the goddess, whose epiclesis is considered equivalent to the Cretan Diktynna - one of the hypostases of the Lady. The temple is small, built of pale gray shell limestone, which is covered with plaster on top: it stands on a special stone pedestal of four steps and is oriented, like most Greek shrines, towards the sea (Saronic Gulf). The division of the internal space is traditional: pronaos, naos and opisthodome, maintained in good proportions (5 x 12 columns). The building is much lighter than the earlier Dorian ones and even floats - in the bright light against the backdrop of green pine trees, it is harmoniously perceived in the environment. Its columns are tall and thin, with proportions similar to those of the Parthenon (diameter to height ratio: 5.32, in the Parthenon - 5.48). Moreover, the plasticity of the capitals is consistent with their architectonics (which will already disappear in the Parthenon).
An important innovation is emerging. The three-nave cella, in which the cult statue of the goddess stood, has a two-tier colonnade: on the columns of the first tier there are small columns of the second. Accordingly on upper tier There are two small galleries along the northern and southern walls for walking around. The temple had a harmonious appearance both outside and inside, “where the cult statue was woven into the arabesque of the colonnade.” The construction of two-tiered supports in such a small building suggests that this was done for reasons of ritual. The cult statue of the deity, at first small, wooden, periodically, from year to year, passed from one priest to another, in whose house it was kept (such statues were made by the Argive Ageladus), by this time gradually acquired a large size. The monumental cult statue now stood in the central nave, flanked by two-tiered colonnades. Two staircases lead up from below, so that while walking along the small upper galleries, one could view the statue from above. Previously, the contemplation of a cult statue was either completely prohibited (the golden statue of Apollo in the adyton of the Delphic temple), or allowed from the floor level, but now the path was opened for the ascent of man; falling into the status of a celestial, he could contemplate sacred objects from top to bottom. Moreover, if in southern Italian temples such as Apollonion or the temple of Athena in Poseidonia, people climbed up, also along two staircases, and there was communication between the symbolic sky and the real one (the roof of the temple is the firmament), then in the Aegina temple all this was only artificially reproduced. The Aegina temple is not hypothral and without a flat roof: it models the classical image of the universe with its three parts. Therefore, reaching the level of the small colonnade meant reaching heaven. However, the idea has long been stated as an archaic theme of the “introduction to Olympus” of the resurrected god - Hercules, Hyakinthos, Hephaestus.
Lesson #12.
Subject.
Target. - To acquaint students with the features of the Greek relief of the Archaic and
Classics; give an idea of the reliefs of the temples of Athena in Selinunte, Zeus in
Olympia, Parthenon.
Develop the ability to compare works of one type of art to different ones
Historical time; correlate the studied works with a specific era.
Express your own opinions about classic works.
Equipment. Computer, projector, computer disk, illustrative and handout material on the topic.
Concepts and terms. Relief, decor, frieze, metope, composition.
Literature.
1. Martynov V.FY. World art culture: Tutorial. – Minsk, 1999.
2. Guzik M.A. In search of the golden fleece. MHC in quizzes, puzzles, crosswords and cryptograms. – M., 1994.
3. Cultural studies. Textbook for students. – Rostov-on-Don, 1995.
4. Who is who in the ancient world. Directory. – M., 1993.
5. Art. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 1,2. "Avanta", - M., 1999.
Board design. Subject. Epigraph, problem task.
Lesson type. Combined
Lesson organization form. School lecture. The elements of practical work are consolidated.
Plan for learning new material.
1. Relief of the Temple of Athena in Selinunte:
2. Temple of Zeus at Olympia:
3. Metopes and Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
Epigraph.
Soul.
I. Winkelman.
Problem task.After studying the new material, complete task 7 in workbook. (Connect with arrows the images of Doric temples of the Archaic and Classical periods with the corresponding reliefs).
During the classes.
Org moment.
Repetition.
Using illustrative material, identify the parts of the Greek temple (task 1).
Tasks 2, 3 of a higher level of difficulty.
Checking creative assignments.
Learning new material.
Name the topic, the purpose of the lesson, introduce the epigraph.
In relief, Greek art reached the highest perfection. The peculiarity of Greek relief lies not in the conveyance of portrait resemblance, but in the master’s ability to find those forms that best reflect the essence of the plot.
We will trace the evolution (development) of relief using the example of a Doric temple in different periods development of Greek culture.
Features of the composition. |
Lecture plan.
Relief of the Temple of Athena in Selinunte:
Relief storyline;
Techniques and methods of conveying the main idea;
Features of composition, images of figures;
Shadow pattern.
Temple of Zeus at Olympia:
Subject lines of reliefs;
Methods of conveying dramatic action.
Metopes and Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
Features of the composition of metopes and Ionic frieze;
The idea of the triumph of Athenian democracy in the depiction of the procession of the inhabitants of Athens in
feast of the great Panathenaia;
The rhythm of the relief, the lack of expression, fracture, shocking.
During the lecture we work withillustrative material from the CD. Output to the projector visual range:
The Rape of Europa. Metope of the Temple of Athena in Selinunte. VI century BC.
Running Nereids. Metope of the Temple of Athena at the mouth of the Sele River.VI century BC.
Zeus and Hera. Metope of the Temple of Athena in Selinunte. VI century BC.
Hercules and the Titan. Metope of the Temple of Athena at the mouth of the Sele River.VI century BC.
Hercules and Deianira. Metope of the Temple of Athena at the mouth of the Sele River.VI century BC.
Phidias. Fight between a lapith and a centaur. Metope of the Parthenon.
Phidias. Ephebes with horses. Metope of the Parthenon.
Water carriers. North Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
Phidias. The gods of Olympus. East Ionic frieze of the Parthenon.
In order to complement and expand the material studied, students are invited to listen to messages about Phidias prepared by the children.
At the end of the lecture, we check what material was recorded in the table, make clarifications and additions.
Consolidation. We remind students of the problematic task. To update the material studied, we suggest viewing a computer presentation in which illustrative material is selected on the topic studied in class (2-3 minutes). Next, students independently complete task 7 in their workbook.
We collect notebooks.
Working with a document.(Handouts for the lesson).
Get acquainted with the document and draw a conclusion about the evolution of Greek relief from archaic to classical.
Homework.§12, reports on Greek sculptors (Polykleitos, Scopas).
Students' notes in notebooks.
Subject. Evolution of Greek relief.
Epigraph. How the depths of the sea always remain calm, no matter how much
The sea did not rage on the surface, just like the images created
The Greeks, among the disturbances of passions, discover a great and firm
Soul.
I. Winkelman.
Features of the Greek relief of the archaic and classical periods.
Handouts for the lesson.
Working with a document.
“All these – now radiant, now menacing, living, dead, triumphant, dying figures, these twists of scaly snake rings, these outstretched wings. These eagles, these bodies, these horses, weapons, shields, these flying clothes, these palm trees and these bodies, the most beautiful human bodies in all positions, bold to the point of incredibleness, harmonious to the point of music - all these varied facial expressions, selfless movements of the limbs, this triumph of anger, and despair, and gaiety, divinity, and divine cruelty - all this heaven and all the earth - yes, this is the world , a whole world, before the revelation of which an involuntary chill of delight and passionate reverence runs through all veins..."(I. Turgenev)
Questions for the document.
What do you think is the beauty of Greek relief?
Express your own judgments about the works studied in class.
MBOU "Kolontaevskaya secondary school"
Lgovsky district, Kursk region
Lesson 12
The evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classic
Temple of Athena in Selinunte. Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
Metopes and Ionic frieze of the Parthenon
(UMK Emokhonova L.G., 10th grade)
Teacher of Russian language and literature, MHC
Kurbatova G.N.
2017
Lesson type: lesson-research.
Goals:
To acquaint students with the features of the Greek relief of the Archaic and
classics; give an idea of the reliefs of the temples of Athena in Selinunte, Zeus in
Olympia, Parthenon.
Develop the ability to compare works of one type of art to different ones
historical time; correlate the studied works with a specific era.
Express your own opinions about classic works.
Equipment: PC, projector, textbook, notebook.
During the classes.
Organizing time . Draws attention to a new search direction of activity. We are looking for “The Most interesting fact, related to art and the topic being studied.”
Epigraph.
I. Winkelman.
Learning new material.
They answer the question of what they know about the relief and its types. (Annex 1). Complete task 1.
The teacher places emphasis:
The peculiarity of the Greek relief is not in the verisimilitude and transmission of external resemblance, but in the ability to find those forms and that linear rhythm that extremely accurately reflect the essence of the plot and correspond to the architectural style.
The evolution of the relief went from the entertaining diversity of the archaic to the simple forms of the classics, strict and humane.
Archaic
Metope of the Temple of Athena in Selinunte (6th century BC)
Stunning stylistic consonance of relief and heavy architecture.
The metope depicts Perseus, who, with the support of Athena, defeats the gorgon Medusa.
Early classic
Temple of Zeus at Olympia (early 5th century BC)
The Greeks found more spiritual forms of relief, the interaction of which with architecture became easier and more subtle, because the spirit of rationalism overcame the resistance of matter and the temple acquired drier, clearer outlines. Each relief conveys a dramatic action, and its expression is a simple movement, a gesture.
The metope of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia is decorated with a scene of the penultimate labor of Hercules, associated with the acquisition of the golden apples of the Hesperides - the apples of eternal youth.
Late classic
Metopes of the Parthenon (? c.431 BC)
Unique ability Greek art to find the exact movement and rhythm of lines in order to reveal the internal pattern of the plot and create a complete image. This is evident in the reliefs of the metopes and the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon - the creations of the great Phidias.
Consolidating new material. Completing task 2. Conduct a mini-test after completing tasks 1 and 2.
Task control.
Work in the workbook: task No. 7.
Research assignment: analyze the relief of Phidias “Water Carriers” (textbook, pp. 30 – 31).
Reflection. Lesson summary.
Homework 12. Questions 1 task. Learn a lesson - 2.
Literature.
2. Guzik M.A. In search of the golden fleece. MHC in quizzes, puzzles, crosswords and cryptograms. – M., 1994.
3. Cultural studies. Textbook for students. – Rostov-on-Don, 1995.
4. Who is who in the ancient world. Directory. – M., 1993.
5. Art. Encyclopedia for children. Volume 1,2. "Avanta", - M., 1999.
Annex 1
Relief – a form of fine art, one of the main types of sculpture, in which everything depicted is created using volumes protruding from the background plane. It is performed using abbreviations in perspective, usually viewed from the front, which makes it different from a round sculpture. A figurative or ornamental image is made on a surface made of stone or clay. Metal, wood using modeling, carving and chasing. Depending on the purpose, architectural reliefs differ (on pediments, friezes, slabs). Types of relief:
Bas-relief (low relief)- a type of sculpture, a convex image protrudes above the background plane, as a rule, by no more than half the volume.
High relief (high relief)- a type of sculpture, the convex image protrudes above the background plane by more than half the volume.
Counter-relief (against and "relief")- a type of in-depth relief, which is a “negative” of the bas-relief. It is used in seals and in forms (matrices) to create bas-relief images and intaglios.
Koylanaglyph (or ankre)- a type of in-depth relief, that is, a contour cut out on a plane. Mainly used in the architecture of Ancient Egypt.
Task 1 “Types of relief”
Determine the type of relief:
_
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4.
| Task 2. "Phidiy" Read the text. Find in the text a description of the metopes of the Parthenon frieze. Write down the information you find in your notebook. Phidias (c. 490 BC - c. 430 BC) is an ancient Greek sculptor and architect, one of the greatest artists of the High Classical period. Friend of Pericles. Phidias is one of the best representatives of the classical style, and about his importance it is enough to say that he is considered the founder of European art. Phidias and the Attic school of sculpture headed by him (2nd half of the 5th century BC) occupied a leading place in the art of high classics. This direction most fully and consistently expressed the advanced artistic ideas of the era. This is how art was created, “Synthesizing everything progressive that was carried in the works of the Ionic, Doric and Attic masters of the early classics up to and including Myron and Paeonius.” They note the enormous skill of Phidias in the interpretation of clothing, in which he surpasses both Myron and Polykleitos. The clothing of his statues does not hide the body: it is not slavishly subordinate to it and does not serve to expose it. Most of Phidias's works have not survived; we can judge about them only from descriptions of ancient authors and copies. Nevertheless, his fame was colossal: The statue of Zeus at Olympia is one of the seven wonders Ancient world. Phidias worked on the statue of Zeus together with his student Kolot and his brother Panen. "Athena Promachos" is a giant image of the goddess Athena brandishing a spear on the Acropolis of Athens. Erected around 460 BC. in memory of victories over the Persians. Its height reached 60 feet and towered over all the surrounding buildings, shining over the city from afar. Bronze casting. Not preserved. "Athena Parthenos". 438 BC was installed in the Athens Parthenon, inside the sanctuary and represented the goddess in full armor. The most complete copy is considered to be the so-called. “Athena Varvakion” (Athens), gold (clothing), ivory (hands, face), decorated with small precious stones. The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon (Parthenon frieze, metopes, etc.) was carried out under his leadership. The sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, as Plutarch notes, was carried out under the leadership of the great master Phidias and with his direct participation. This work is divided into 4 parts: the metopes of the outer (Doric) frieze, the continuous Ionic (inner) frieze, the sculptures in the tympanums of the pediments and the famous statue of Athena Parthenos. The metopes were part of the triglyph-metope frieze, traditional for the Doric order, which encircled the outer colonnade of the temple. In total, there were 92 metopes on the Parthenon, containing various high reliefs. They were connected thematically along the sides of the building. In the south the battle of the centaurs with the Lapiths was depicted, in the west - the Amazonomachy, in the north - probably scenes from the Trojan War, in the east - the Gigantomachy. 57 metopes survive: 42 in Athens and 15 in the British Museum. Cicero wrote about Phidias: “When he created Athena and Zeus, he had no earthly original in front of him that he could use. But in his soul lived that prototype of beauty, which he embodied in matter. It is not without reason that they say about Phidias that he worked in a fit of inspiration, which lifts the spirit above everything earthly, in which the divine spirit is directly visible - this heavenly guest, as Plato puts it.” As Plutarch writes in his Life of Pericles, Phidias was the main adviser and assistant to Pericles in carrying out a large-scale reconstruction of the Acropolis in Athens and giving it its current appearance in the high classical style. Despite this, Phidias was plagued by troubles in his relations with his fellow citizens (c. 432-431 BC). they began to accuse him of concealing the gold from which Athena Prathenos's cloak was made. But the artist’s explanation was very simple: the gold was removed from the base and weighed, and no shortage was found. The next accusation caused much bigger problems. He was accused of insulting the deity: on the shield of Athena, among other statues, Phidias placed his and Pericles’ profile. The sculptor was thrown into prison, where he died, either from poison or from deprivation and grief. According to other sources, he died in exile in Elis. Plutarch writes: “Since he was a friend of Pericles and enjoyed great authority with him, he had many personal enemies and envious people. They persuaded one of Phidias' assistants, Menon, to denounce Phidias and accuse him of theft. Phidias was burdened with envy of the glory of his works... When his case was examined in the People's Assembly, there was no evidence of theft. But Phidias was sent to prison and died there of illness.” A crater on Mercury is named after Phidias. |
"Phidias showing the Parthenon frieze to friends"
painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1868
Pericles - Athenian strategist (c.494 BC – 429 BC)
Phidias - ancient Greek sculptor, architect
List of illustrations
Running Nereids. Relief. 6th century BC Metope of the Temple of Athena at the mouth of the Sele River. Archaeological Museum. Paestum.
Zeus and Hera. Relief. 5th century BC. Metope of the Temple of Hera at Selinunte. Archaeological Museum. Palermo.
Phidias. Greek fighting a centaur. Relief. 447-438 BC Metope of the Parthenon. British museum. London.
The Rape of Europa. Relief. 6th century BC. Metope of the Temple of Athena at Selinunte. Archaeological Museum. Palermo.
Students' notes in notebooks.
Subject. Evolution of Greek relief.
Epigraph. How the depths of the sea always remain calm, no matter how much
the sea did not rage on the surface, just like the images created
Greeks, discover, among the disturbances of passions, a great and firm
I. Winkelman.
Features of the Greek relief of the archaic and classical periods.
| Comparison questions. | Relief from the archaic period. | Relief from the Classical period. |
| Features of the image of the figure. | The figures are squat, with thick legs and a short body. They are heavy up close. | The relief conveys all the features of the human body: sharply defined muscles. Tight calves |
| Maintaining the proportions of the human body. | The proportions were not respected; the heads were very large. | Compliance with the basic proportions of the human body. |
| Features of the composition. | Along the edges of the temple there were dynamic compositions, more lifeless and frozen towards the center. | The composition shows an ideal proportion between repetition and contrast, indicating a sense of proportion. |
| Relief feature | Alternation of light and dark areas of the relief. | Each relief conveys a dramatic action, and its expression is a simple movement, a gesture. |
Handouts for the lesson.
Working with a document.
“All these – now radiant, now menacing, living, dead, triumphant, dying figures, these twists of scaly snake rings, these outstretched wings. These eagles, these bodies, these horses, weapons, shields, these flying clothes, these palm trees and these bodies, the most beautiful human bodies in all positions, bold to the point of incredibleness, slender to the point of music - all these varied facial expressions, selfless movements of the limbs, this the triumph of malice, and despair, and gaiety, divinity, and divine cruelty - all this heaven and all the earth - yes, this is the world, the whole world, before the revelation of which an involuntary cold of delight and passionate reverence runs through all the veins ... " (I. Turgenev)
Questions for the document.
What do you think is the beauty of Greek relief?
Express your own judgments about the works studied in class.
Cancer
