Leonid Yakovlevich Zhmud (June 22, 1956, Lvov, Ukrainian SSR, USSR) - Soviet and Russian historian, specialist in the Pre-Socratics, early Greek science and medicine, philosophy and religion of archaic and classical periods. Candidate historical sciences, Doctor of Philosophy.

After graduating from school and serving in the army in 1977, he entered the history department of Leningrad University, the department of history. Ancient Greece and Rome.

After graduating from university in 1982, he worked as a history teacher in a high school. In 1985-1987 he studied at the graduate school of the Institute of History of Natural Science and Technology of the Academy of Sciences. He defended his PhD thesis in history (1988) and his doctorate thesis in philosophy (1995), both at St. Petersburg (Leningrad) University. Since 1987 he has been working at the Institute of the History of Natural Science and Technology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, currently as a leading researcher.

In 1989, together with L.Ya. Lurie founded the first classical gymnasium in St. Petersburg (school No. 610), where he worked as director in 1989-1990, and as deputy director in 1992-1996. Director for Science.

In 1990-1992 L.Ya. Zhmud was a fellow of the A. von Humboldt Foundation at the University of Konstanz (Germany), with the renewal of this fellowship in the summer months of 1993, 2000, 2004 and 2008. In 1995-1996 he received a fellowship from the Center for Hellenic Studies (Washington), and in 1998-1999 was a member of the Institute for Advanced Study (Princeton).

In 2000-2001 - a Wellcome Trust fellow for the History of Medicine (London), in 2002-2003 - a member of the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, and in 2006-2007 - a fellow of the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study, Wassenaar (Holland).

Area of ​​scientific interests: pre-Socratics, early Greek science and medicine, philosophy and religion of the archaic and classical periods.

Books (4)

The origins of the history of science in antiquity

The book analyzes the origins and development of the historiography of science in antiquity - from the earliest searches for “discoverers” (VI century BC) to the appearance of the first historical and scientific works in Aristotle’s school (IV century BC).

Among the cross-cutting topics of research are ancient philosophy and the methodology of science, in particular the theories of science of the Sophists, Plato and Aristotle, the Peripatetic history of philosophy and medicine, views on scientific progress, the relationship between science and philosophy in ancient period, continuity between ancient and modern European historiography of science. Based on the surviving fragments, an attempt was made to reconstruct the treatises of Eudemus of Rhodes “History of Geometry”, “History of Arithmetic” and “History of Astronomy” and to use their information for the analysis of early Greek science.

The book is intended for historians, philosophers and scientists interested in antiquity.

Science, philosophy and religion in early Pythagoreanism

The book presents the results of research on ancient Pythagoreanism, begun by the author back in the 80s.

It includes materials from already published works (including the popular science book “Pythagoras and His School”), as well as the results of unpublished research. Work on the manuscript was largely completed during 1990-1992, which L. Zhmud spent at the University of Konstanz (Germany); a short trip to Konstanz in the summer of 1993 made it possible to take into account the latest literature.

Pythagoras and his school

The book is devoted to one of the most interesting and at the same time controversial problems of early Greek culture - the Pythagorean question. Based on an analysis of ancient sources, the author introduces the reader to the life and work of Pythagoras, the political practice of Pythagorean society, and the religious and ethical teaching of the Pythagoreans.

A special place in the book is given to the scientific activities of the early Pythagoreans and their contribution to the development of ancient Greek mathematics, physics, astronomy and biology, as well as the mutual influence of science and philosophy in this school. The book is intended for historians, philosophers, scientists, as well as a wide range of readers interested in ancient philosophy and science.

Pythagoras and the early Pythagoreans

Pythagoras, perhaps the most famous of the pre-Socratic philosophers, appears in the ancient tradition as a wise teacher, an outstanding mathematician, an influential politician, a miracle worker and an ethical reformer.

Claiming to have supernatural qualities, Pythagoras was the type of personality that attracts numerous legends. In contrast, the early Pythagoreans, such as the doctors Democedes and Alcmaeon, the Olympians Milo and Ikkos, the botanist Menestor, the natural philosopher Hippo, the mathematicians Hippasus and Theodore, look like completely rational figures. It was their “normality” that ensured the existence of the Pythagorean philosophical and scientific school from the end of the 6th to the middle of the 4th century. BC

This book paints an individual portrait of Pythagoras against the background of a collective portrait of the Pythagoreans, so that they complement and correct each other. Relying primarily on sources of the VI-IV centuries. BC e., the author offers a more historical image of Pythagoras, the Pythagorean community and the religion of the Pythagoreans than the one known from late antique texts.

The Pythagoreans' studies in mathematics, science and medicine are examined in detail. In the analysis of philosophical views, a fundamental distinction is made between the theories of specific thinkers and the “general Pythagorean” numerical doctrine conveyed by Aristotle.

The book is devoted to one of the most interesting and at the same time controversial problems of early Greek culture - the Pythagorean question. Based on an analysis of ancient sources, the author introduces the reader to the life and work of Pythagoras, the political practice of Pythagorean society, and the religious and ethical teaching of the Pythagoreans. A special place in the book is given to the scientific activities of the early Pythagoreans and their contribution to the development of ancient Greek mathematics, physics, astronomy and biology, as well as the mutual influence of science and philosophy in this school. The book is intended for historians, philosophers, scientists, as well as a wide range of readers interested in ancient philosophy and science.

The work belongs to the genre Philosophical Sciences. Sociology. On our website you can download the book “Pythagoras and His School” for free in zip format or read online. The book's rating is 4 out of 5. Here, before reading, you can also turn to reviews from readers who are already familiar with the book and find out their opinion. In our partner’s online store you can buy and read the book in paper form.

L. Y. Zhmud PYTHAGORUS Magna Graecia

GREAT GREECE

About the arrival of Pythagoras in Croton, an interesting testimony from Dicaearchus has been preserved (as reported by Porphyry): “When Pythagoras arrived in Italy and appeared in Croton, he endeared himself to the whole city as a man who had traveled a lot, was extraordinary, and by nature richly gifted by fate, for he possessed with majestic appearance and great beauty, nobility of speech, character and everything else, first, making a long and beautiful speech, he charmed the elders gathered in the council, then, at their request, he gave instructions to the young men, after that to the children gathered together from the schools, and finally, women, when they too were called to listen to him" (fr. 33).

Despite the panegyric tone and some implausibility in the details, there are probably some real events(an earlier author, the philosopher Antisthenes, also mentions the speeches of Pythagoras). 19. Let us remember that Pythagoras arrives in Croton alone, deprived of the support of his native polis.

The fate of such people was rarely enviable: Pythagoras’s contemporary Xenophanes, who also left Ionia for Magna Graecia, was forced to earn his living by performing Homeric poems. How else can one explain Pythagoras’s rapid success if not by his special personal talent and ability to convince people?

As E. Miner aptly describes, "Pythagoras came to Croton as a religious and moral teacher... probably with some experience as a reactionary political agitator. He was a man with strong social and political prejudices and a deep sense of his own importance. He was an elected leader, a prophet, but not without cunning and a good knowledge of practical details and means, which alone can explain his subsequent phenomenal success." 20.

Apparently, a significant role was played by the fact that Pythagoras arrived in Croton during a difficult period for the city and somehow managed to use this situation for his own purposes. The Achaean colony of Croton, like many others in Magna Graecia, was founded at the end of the 8th century. before i. e. Over the next period, the economic prosperity of the southern Italian cities was constantly growing, but in the middle of the 6th century. BC e. their interests come into conflict with each other. The main cause of discord was, apparently, not so much trade rivalry as land ownership: expanding the territory, the colonies eventually clashed with each other. Croton, in alliance with Sybaris, the largest and richest in southern Italy, as well as Metapontus, attacks Siris. Following the victory over Siris, Croton, now on his own, begins a war with the Locrians of Episether (shortly after 540 BC). Despite the numerical superiority of the attacking side, the Locrians managed not only to defeat, but also to destroy most of the Crotonian army (according to legend, the divine twins Dioscuri, sent by the Spartans, helped them in this). 21.

An indirect reflection of the decline that the city experienced after the unsuccessful war against the Locri is the absence of Crotonians among the Olympic winners from 548 to 532 BC. e. , while before there were a lot of them. In 532 BC. e. the Crotonian athlete Milo won his first victory, and from 508 to 480 BC. e. seven of the eight winners in the race were Crotonians. Most historians associate this rise in the spirit of the Crotonian citizens with the influence of the ethical and political teachings of Pythagoras, (22) but exactly what means he used for this can only be guessed at.

Over time, loyal supporters began to group around the Samian sage, probably mainly from among the aristocratic youth, whom Pythagoras raised in the spirit of his teachings. According to Isocrates (though somewhat ironically), Pythagoras’s fame as an educator was so great that all the young men wanted to become his students, and their fathers preferred that they spend time with him rather than mind their own affairs (Bus. 29).

Plato, in his only mention of Pythagoras, calls him “the leader of the youth”, who created a special Pythagorean way of life (Gos. 600 a - b).

The political influence of Pythagoras' supporters increased gradually as they matured and became involved in government activities. In any case, we have no evidence that they played a decisive role in Croton already in the 20s. VI century BC e. First important event, in which this role was noticeable, was the war between Croton and Sybaris. According to the story, which most likely dates back to Timaeus, the tyrant Telis seized power in Sybaris, and a number of his opponents from among " best husbands" fled to Croton. When an embassy arrived from Sybaris and demanded the extradition of the fugitives, the Crotonian council, under the influence of Pythagoras, refused it, which predetermined the start of the war. In the battle that took place around 510 BC, the Crotonian army under the command of a Pythagorean Milo completely defeated the Sybarites and then destroyed their city (Herodotus. V, 44; VI, 23).

The victory over Sybaris made Croton the most powerful of the cities of southern Italy. He subordinates nearby cities to his influence, which have become “allies” dependent on him. At the same time, this victory led to the first known outbreak of the anti-Pythagorean movement, known as the Cylon conspiracy.

Aristoxenus reports the following details about her.

"Cylon, a Crotonian man, was one of the first citizens in his family, fame and wealth, but otherwise he was an evil and cruel man, of a tyrannical disposition and a sower of trouble. Trying with all his might to join the Pythagorean way of life, he came to Pythagoras when he was already an old man, but was rejected for the reasons indicated. After this, he and his friends began a fierce struggle against Pythagoras and his associates" (fr. 18).

Although we have no reason to reject the version of the personal rivalry between Cylon and Pythagoras (Aristotle already mentioned it), it is unlikely that it was main reason anti-Pythagorean speech. The very existence of a group that had great influence on the political life of Croton should have aroused the hostility of those to whom it previously belonged. This enmity probably intensified due to the increased activity of the Pythagoreans after the victory over Sybaris. In their speech, Quilon and his supporters could also use the dissatisfaction of citizens with the authoritarian policies of the Pythagoreans and, as noted in some sources, with the unfair division of land acquired after the war.

The role of Pythagoras in the events of this time is very difficult to assess. Aristoxenus limits himself to a short reference to the fact that “because of these events, Pythagoras left for Metapontus, where, they say, he ended his life” (fr. 18). Dicaearchus also talks about how Pythagoras moved to Metapontum, however, after trying to settle in Caulonia, and then in Locri, where he was not allowed (fr. 34). This story is also connected with another piece of evidence contained in Diogenes Laertius: “And Dicaearchus says that Pythagoras died, having fled to the Metapontian temple of the Muses, where he spent forty days without food” (fr. 35).

It is not easy to decide whether the death of Pythagoras followed immediately after the flight to Metapontus or whether some time passed between these events. If we accept the first option, then Pythagoras died before the end of the 6th century. BC e. , since the rebellion of Cylon probably occurred shortly after the war with Sybaris (510 BC), but exactly when is unknown. However, this does not fit well with the chronology of Apollodorus, who considers the year of his death to be 497 BC. e. , most likely based on the material of Aristoxenus. Although our sources do not give much hope for resolving these chronological difficulties, we can still, with some reason, attribute the death of Pythagoras to the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. 24.

The circumstances of his death, conveyed by Dicaearchus, may indicate that in Metapontum he continued to be involved in politics: death in the temple from hunger (if, of course, this is a real detail) indicates some kind of political persecution.

In conclusion, a few words about the Pythagorean family.

His wife is usually called Theano (she was first mentioned at the end of the 4th century BC), the daughter of the Pythagorean Brontin. However, in other sources she appears as the wife of Brontinus and/or the daughter of Pythagoras. In Hellenistic pseudo-Pythagorean literature, Theano was extremely popular. Many essays, letters and a whole host of moralizing statements were attributed to her, in which the image of an ideal wife and mother was painted. Interestingly, she was considered not only the wife, but also a student of Pythagoras, which was very rare for Greece. Among her “works” you can find the treatise “On Virtue” and even “Philosophical Notes”. 25.

The tradition about the children of Pythagoras is just as confusing.

Timaeus reports that “the daughter of Pythagoras was the first among girls in her maidenhood, and the first among women in marriage” (Porph. 4). According to Porfiry, her name was Miya. Of the sons of Pythagoras, the names most often named are Telauga and Arimnesta, although in later tradition the names of other sons and daughters of Pythagoras are also found. The family biography of Pythagoras was already composed in Hellenistic times, with some writings attributed to almost every member of his family. 26. It is almost impossible to assess how reliable at least the names of his relatives are. We can only say with certainty that Pythagoras had a wife and children.

Zhmud Leonid Yakovlevich
Pythagoras and his school (c. 530 - c. 430 BC)

Leningrad: Nauka, 1990.- 192 p.
Series From the history of world culture

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The book is devoted to one of the most interesting and at the same time controversial problems of early Greek culture - the Pythagorean question. Based on an analysis of ancient sources, the author introduces the reader to the life and work of Pythagoras, the political practice of the Pythagorean community, and the religious and ethical teaching of the Pythagoreans. A special place in the book is given to the scientific activities of the early Pythagoreans and their contribution to the development of ancient Greek mathematics, physics, astronomy and biology, as well as the mutual influence of science and philosophy in this school.
The book is intended for historians, philosophers, scientists, as well as a wide range of readers interested in ancient philosophy and science.

Table of contents

Introduction 3

Biography of Pythagoras: sources, facts, legends 11
Sources (p. 12). Life on Samos (p. 16). Travel (p. 18). Magna Graecia (p. 24).

Pythagorean Community 30
Secrecy (p. 37). Did the Pythagoreans attribute their scientific achievements Pythagoras? (p. 40). The oral character of early Pythagoreanism (p. 42). What community did Pythagoras found? (p. 43). Pythagorean acousmas. “Mathematicians” and “acousmaticians” (p. 48).

Math 56
Early Greek mathematics and the East (p. 56). Deductive proof (p. 61). Mathematics of Pythagoras (p. 67). Hippasus (p. 81). Pythagorean mathematics of the first half of the 5th century. BC e. (p. 84). “Geometric algebra” and Babylon (p. 86).

Music, harmonica, acoustics 91

Astronomy 108
Greek astronomy and Babylon (p. 108). Hypotheses and observations (p. 113). The doctrine of heavenly harmony (p. 120).

Medicine and Wildlife Sciences 130
Crotonian medicine and Pythagoreanism (p. 134). Medical theory and practice of the Pythagoreans (p. 137). Botany (p. 144). Anatomy and physiology (p. 149). Pythagoreans and the Hippocratic Corpus (p. 153).

Philosophical views Pythagoreans
Is everything a number? (p. 159). Aristotle and the Pythagoreans (p. 165). Pythagorean philosophy(p. 174).

Afterword 182
List of abbreviations 188