Consciousness is a property of highly organized matter, a function of the human brain associated with speech to display the world in ideal images.
The problem of consciousness is central to any philosophical teaching, since the core of any philosophy is one or another solution to the question of the relationship between matter and consciousness. Consciousness is studied by various sciences: psychology. Medicine, cybernetics. In contrast, philosophy studies consciousness 1) as a value, 2) in its relation to matter.
From the point of view of idealism, consciousness creates the world. This idea makes consciousness mysterious and incomprehensible. Materialism has overcome mystification. He views consciousness as a function of the brain, Secondly as a reflection of matter, thirdly as a product of the development of matter. Consciousness is inherent in man, it exists subjective reality. At the same time, consciousness is objective, because it generally morally reflects the world.
Being secondary from matter, consciousness is a product of development;
Consciousness is a product social development;
Consciousness is of a concrete historical nature.
Consciousness - higher sphere of the human psyche, but not the only one, because the latter also includes the unconscious.
Structure of consciousness: 1) knowledge is the foundation of consciousness. A person is aware only of what he knows; 2) attention - the ability of consciousness to concentrate on certain types of activity; 3) memory – the ability to accumulate knowledge and reproduce it; 4) emotions, feelings - without emotions there can be no human search for truth; 5) will – a person’s meaningful striving towards a goal; 6) self-awareness.
Self-consciousness is a kind of center of our consciousness, integrating the beginning in it. Self-awareness is a person’s awareness of his body, his thoughts and feelings, his actions, his place in society, in other words, awareness of himself as a special and unified personality. Self-awareness: well-being, belonging to a community, the emergence of the “I”.
The unconscious as a subject of philosophical research: Z. Freud, K. Jung.
Unconscious - when the object is not aware of the motive for the action.
The unconscious has 3 levels: 1st – a person’s unconscious psychological control over the life of his body, this is the satisfaction of the simplest needs and requirements of a person (self-preservation instinct, maternal instinct); 2nd – controlled processes, which are usually realized within consciousness, but can also be realized moving into the realm of the unconscious (feelings of hunger, conscience - were initially formed within consciousness, but then moved to the realm of the unconscious); The 3rd is the highest level of the unconscious, which manifests itself in science, philosophy, intuition and plays an important role in creative processes.
Sigmund Freud (introduced the unconscious as a force that opposes consciousness. The human psyche consists of 3 layers: 1- It - various biological drives and passions are concentrated in it. 2- I (ego) - a small layer of the conscious, 3- super-ego - ideals and the norms of society, the sphere of obligation and moral censorship. Man, according to Freud, is an erotic being governed by unconscious instincts.
Jung opposed the interpretation of man as an erotic being and tried to more deeply differentiate the Freudian id. He identified in it, in addition to the personal unconscious, also the collective unconscious, which is a reflection of the experience of previous generations. The content of the collective unconscious constitutes universal human prototypes - archetypes. Man is, first of all, an archetypal being.
Basic problems of epistemology. The problem of the cognizability of the world. The concepts of “knowledge” and “understanding”.
Epistemology is the doctrine of the knowability of the world, examines the problems of human cognition, the possibilities and boundaries of human cognition, ways and means of achieving true knowledge, the importance of knowledge in human life.
The central problem of a person’s cognitive relationship to the world is the problem of the cognizability of the world. Solving this problem gave rise to serious difficulties. These difficulties are due to the fact that our senses react similarly to various stimuli (skepticism, agnosticism). Dialectical-materialist philosophy solves the problem of the cognizability of the world positively: our sensations, ideas, concepts, being ultimately products of the development of nature and society, must correspond to them, adequately reflect natural and social objects. Finally, and most importantly, the cognizability of the world finds decisive confirmation in objective practical activity.
Knowledge is a form of existence and systematization of results cognitive activity person. There are different types of knowledge: scientific, everyday (common sense), intuitive, religious, etc.
Understanding is a psychological state that expresses the correctness of the decision made and is accompanied by a feeling of confidence in the accuracy of the perception or interpretation of any event, phenomenon, or fact. The ability to see cause-and-effect relationships.
Sensory and rational cognition, their specificity and interrelation. Philosophical teachings sensationalism and rationalism. The role of intuition in cognition.
Philosophy distinguishes two different types of knowledge: sensory and rational.
Basic forms sensory knowledge: sensations, perceptions, ideas.
1. sensation – a process consisting of capturing individual properties of objects and phenomena material world at the moment of their impact on our senses.
2. perception – a holistic reflection in the consciousness of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.
3. representation - images of objects preserved by memory that once influenced the senses.
Rational cognition mainly comes down to conceptual abstract thinking. Abstract thinking is a purposeful and generalized reproduction in perfect shape essential and natural properties, connections and relationships of things. Basic forms rational knowledge: concepts, conclusions, hypotheses, theories.
Truth is achieved only through the joint efforts of these two components.
Sensualism (representatives: Locke, Hobbes, Berkeley) is a direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations and perceptions are the main and main form of reliable knowledge. The basic principle of sensationalism is “there is nothing in the mind that is not in the senses.”
Rationalism (representatives: Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) - philosophical direction, which recognizes reason as the basis of human cognition and behavior, the source and criterion of the truth of all human aspirations in life.
Ability direct discretion truth, bypassing the intermediate stages of logical justification of the conclusion leading to it, is called intuition.
Topic 8. HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS AS A SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHICAL ANALYSIS
Plan
1. Consciousness as a subject philosophical analysis.
2. scientific picture evolution of consciousness.
3. Structure and functions of consciousness.
Basic concepts: consciousness, reflection, anticipatory reflection, irritability, excitability, sensitivity, psyche, instinct, thinking, concept, judgment, inference, language, sign.
Consciousness as a subject of philosophical analysis
Consciousness, as the most important property of a person, is a specific form of regulation of the subject’s interaction with the surrounding reality. Through consciousness, a person distinguishes himself from the world around him, regulates his connections with the world and controls himself and the world.
Consciousness is studied by many sciences: logic, psychology, sociology, physiology of higher nervous activity, anthropology, ergonomics, pedagogy, semiotics, cybernetics. Each of them formulates its own subject of analysis. Modern science in general, it successfully answers many questions related to human consciousness. At the same time, specific sciences have little interest in the value aspects of people’s conscious activity, the truth of conscious states and acts. Philosophy is interested in precisely this aspect, and specific scientific issues, for example, the specifics of brain neurodynamic processes, are secondary for it.
Religion also provides its own answers to questions about consciousness. But in religion, consciousness is mystified, conclusions about it are made at the level of emotional and sensory experience. Unlike religion, philosophy seeks to rationally and logically substantiate its ideas about consciousness and support them with scientific evidence.
In exploring consciousness, philosophy combines rational-logical and axiological, value-based approaches. It analyzes consciousness in the unity of what a person is aware of and how he does it. In this way, the philosophy of consciousness differs from specific scientific conclusions and religious and artistic interpretations of consciousness.
In general, we can conclude that philosophy, specific sciences and religion take into account each other’s achievements in solving the problem of consciousness, but have their own goals and grounds.
The main problems of the philosophy of consciousness:
– the problem of the nature of consciousness (material or ideal), its source and carrier;
– the problem of time, conditions and factors for the emergence of consciousness;
– the problem of the structure of consciousness, its elements, levels and forms;
– the problem of the functions of consciousness, its role in the life of an individual, society, culture, and the Universe.
Traditionally, philosophy studies consciousness in the context of the problem of interaction between the ideal and material principles of existence.
Ideas about the ideal nature of consciousness arose before the material, physical prerequisites for its emergence were substantiated. This is no coincidence. The ancient Greeks, namely they who began to analyze the problem of consciousness, took intellectual activity a much higher role than the physical one. The earliest ideas about consciousness were expressed in the concepts of “spirit”, “soul”, “logos”. Heraclitus considered logos to be the basis of consciousness. The Pythagoreans believed that the soul was an immortal demon wandering through bodies. Democritus understood the soul as a collection of spherical atoms of fire. Plato developed the doctrine of the world soul as the origin of the world. The soul of an individual person consists of three parts:
– rational, its virtue is wisdom, it prevails among philosophers;
– emotional, its virtue is dignity and will, it prevails among warriors;
– sensual (lustful), her virtue is temperance and prudence, it prevails among artisans and farmers.
In Plato's philosophy, a certain range of phenomena were outlined that have contradictory properties. On the one hand, these phenomena were obviously the result of human thinking, will, and fantasy, and on the other hand, they were completely independent of the thinking, will, and mental state of each individual and even guided his actions. For example, state laws, cultural and linguistic norms, logical categories and mathematical truths. A person assimilates such phenomena in the process of upbringing and training, and then is guided by them in Everyday life. In some situations, a person gives them preference over his material, physical needs. Plato called these universal norms of culture ideas, and philosophy designated the problem of the study of consciousness as the problem of the ideal in general.
Aristotle argued with Plato, arguing that the soul is not inherent in the entire Cosmos, but only in living bodies: the soul is a companion of life. Therefore, he distinguished three types of soul: plant, animal and human (reasonable). The first two types are associated with the body, but the mind and thinking do not depend on the body. The mind is eternal, its task is to comprehend the essence of things hidden behind the external appearance of phenomena.
Further study of consciousness is associated with the works of Plotinus, Augustine the Blessed, R. Descartes, I. Kant, K. Marx, Z. Freud, E. Husserl.
Concluding that consciousness has an ideal nature, i.e. is an expression of man's ability to reflect the world in images, philosophy had to respond to next question: how does the ideal exist? Do the images that a person creates exist in nature itself or in the biological nature of man? Obviously not. So, for example, the shape of the jug that the potter makes was not contained in advance either in a piece of clay or in the anatomical organization of the body of the potter himself.
The greatest contribution to the development of this problem was made by representatives of Marxism and psychoanalysis, who created a psychosocial, materialist concept of consciousness. Based on natural science data, they concluded that the ideal is a form of human life. Culture becomes the result of the combined activities of many generations of people, the embodiment of their consciousness, creativity, spiritual daring and emotional experiences. Culture is a special world, different from the world of first nature in that it is created by a person capable of creating images. Therefore, we can assert that the ideal has real existence.
Thus, on the ontological plane, consciousness is a property of matter, and on the epistemological plane, it is a sensory image of the external world. It is on these methodological foundations that the study of specific problems of the philosophy of consciousness is carried out.
Consciousness is the highest form of the psyche, the result of the socio-historical conditions for the formation of a person in work activity with constant communication with other people.
Consciousness is the state of an individual’s mental life, expressed in the subjective experience of events in the external world and the life of the individual himself, in a report on these events.
Consciousness is contrasted with the unconscious in its various variants (unconscious, subconscious, etc.).
Consciousness is one of the central concepts of classical Western philosophy. The human sciences (psychology) also proceeded from a certain understanding of consciousness. At the same time, understanding consciousness was associated with significant difficulties. At the end of the 19th century. biologist T. Huxley even expressed the opinion that the nature of consciousness, in principle, cannot be scientific research. Many psychologists in the 19th and 20th centuries. (Wundt et al.) believed that only individual phenomena of consciousness can be scientifically studied; as for its essence, it cannot be expressed, although consciousness is subjectively given in experience. Meanwhile, philosophers tried to analyze its nature and formulate the following concepts of consciousness.
1. The concept of identifying consciousness with knowledge: everything we know is consciousness, and everything we are aware of is knowledge. Most representatives classical philosophy shared this idea, supporting it with reference to the etymology of the word: lat. the name for consciousness means shared knowledge. True, some philosophers did not agree with this understanding. Some philosophers gave the example of the perception of an unfamiliar object, which from their point of view is not knowledge, but is certainly an act of consciousness. In reality, everything that is realized is knowledge of one kind or another. This applies in particular to the perception of an unfamiliar object. For this perception to become possible, the subject must have certain perceptual hypotheses and even perform an act of thinking - while the process of using these hypotheses itself is not conscious. Perception is thus knowledge, contrary to the belief common in classical philosophy. Another thing is that this knowledge can be very superficial. The subject's awareness of his emotions, desires, and volitional impulses is also knowledge. Of course, emotions, desires, and volitional impulses themselves cannot be reduced to knowledge, although they presuppose the latter. But their awareness is nothing more than knowledge of their presence. From the above, however, the conclusion about the identity of knowledge and consciousness does not follow. Modern philosophers and psychologists are faced with the fact of unconscious knowledge. This is not only what I know, but what in this moment I don’t think and therefore I don’t realize, but what I can easily make available to my consciousness (knowledge of the theorem).
2. A number of philosophers (phenomenology - Bretano, Husserl, Sartre) highlight not knowledge, but intentionality as the main feature of consciousness, i.e. focus on a specific subject or object. From this point of view, all types of consciousness have such a feature: not only perceptions and thoughts, but also ideas, emotions, desires, intentions, volitional impulses. According to this view, I cannot be ignorant of an object, but if I single it out through my intention, it becomes the object of my consciousness. With this approach, consciousness is not only a set of intentions, but also their source. Moreover, the intentional object of consciousness does not necessarily have to exist in reality. It may be imaginary. Consciousness can be intentionally aimed at physical objects (real, imaginary), at ideal objects (numbers, values), or at the state of consciousness itself. In phenomenology, the psyche and consciousness are essentially identified, but the essence of consciousness, its essence, is not revealed.
3. Sometimes consciousness is identified with attention. This position is shared by a number of philosophers, but is especially popular among some psychologists who are trying, from the point of view of cognitive science, to interpret consciousness (that is, attention in this understanding) as a kind of filter on the path of information processed by the nervous system. Consciousness, with such an interpretation, plays the role of a kind of distributor of limited resources of the nervous system. Meanwhile, a number of facts of mental life cannot be explained from such a point of view (facts of inattentive consciousness in a driver having a conversation while driving). American psychologists have shown that information perceived by the subject without attention is nevertheless realized to some extent.
4. The teachings of S. Freud have become especially famous. He views the human psyche as a complexly organized system with three spheres: “It” (the deep layer of unconscious drives), “I” (the sphere of the social, a mediator between the unconscious and the outside world), “super-ego” (sociality within the human consciousness). Freud essentially reduces consciousness to the unconscious. Here, while correctly identifying the important role of unconscious mental phenomena in human behavior, the importance of the social component of consciousness is still unjustifiably downplayed. At the same time, consciousness is in a complex interaction with various forms of unconscious, unconscious acts that determine the behavior of the individual. Some of these aspects happen automatically. In cases where the unconscious invades consciousness and the latter is unable to resist it, various mental disorders occur.
The problem of consciousness is one of the most difficult and mysterious, since consciousness is a complex complex of thoughts and feelings located inside us. It is invisible, it does not exist as a separate object or process, and therefore it is impossible to cognize and describe it with the help of scientific instruments. The carrier of consciousness is the human brain - the most complexly organized material object.
Consciousness - this is the highest function of the human brain, which consists in a generalized and purposeful reflection of reality, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and their results, in the regulation and self-control of human behavior.
In philosophy, consciousness is considered through a number of interrelated problems:
1) how consciousness exists;
2) what are its main properties;
3) how consciousness arose;
4) what is the structure (device) of consciousness.
The solution to the first of these problems is connected with the main question of philosophy about the relationship of consciousness to being, with the determination of the place and role of consciousness in the world.
Philosophy gave a number of answer options:
Substantialism (objective idealists and dualists who represented consciousness in the form of an eternal independent substance - God, the world mind, cosmic soul; human consciousness is an immortal particle or product of this world mind);
Functionalism (firstly, the materialists of the 18th-19th centuries, who considered consciousness to be a special substance automatically secreted by the human brain, and secondly, the dialectical materialists of the 19th-20th centuries, who considered consciousness not a substance, but a function of the brain, that is, a complex connection of its nervous cells that form forms of thinking based on the sensory reflection of our experience);
Subjectivism (phenomenologists and existentialists who believed that since a person’s individual consciousness always manifests itself in internal images, we only assume that there is an external objective world around us; we only know with certainty the world created by our own consciousness);
Psychoanalytic tradition (3. Freud, K. Jung, E. Fromm, who posed to philosophy the problem of the unconscious, i.e., the existence of mental phenomena that influence consciousness, but are not controlled by it.)
Each of these traditions emphasizes certain properties of consciousness. Thus, substantialism emphasizes the ideal nature of consciousness. Functionalism, on the contrary, notes the dependence of consciousness on natural, material structures (from the brain and human sensory experience). The psychoanalytic approach discovered the phenomenon of the unconscious, and the subjectivist approach drew attention to the special significance of self-consciousness. A modern concept of consciousness must synthesize these various aspects of the analysis of the problem of consciousness.
Basic properties of consciousness.
Dialectical-materialistic functionalism includes the following as the main properties of consciousness:
The socio-historical nature of the formation of consciousness (the example of Mowgli proves that consciousness does not arise in a child raised among animals);
Its intentionality, i.e. focus on the object;
Internal activity, the anticipatory nature of the mental reflection of the situation, the ability for creativity and fantasy;
Its non-substantiality, i.e. consciousness cannot exist outside its material carrier - the brain, and cannot act on the world on its own, without the speech and actions of people (hence the immortality of the soul, telepathy, telekinesis, extrasensory influence, clairvoyance, ghosts and other mystical phenomena are impossible);
Its ideality - internal images of consciousness are not reduced to groups of excited brain cells or groups of molecules (it is impossible to directly consider a thought or recognize any feeling).
Functions of consciousness. The main functions of consciousness include: cognitive, goal-setting, regulatory, value-based, creative. Human consciousness allows him to develop generalized knowledge about reality, carry out acts of self-knowledge, set goals and develop action plans, regulate and control relationships with reality, evaluate various phenomena and form life values, creatively change the conditions of your life.
The problem of the genesis (emergence) of consciousness. Consciousness and the evolution of forms of reflection. In the process of development of philosophy and science, it was proven that all matter has a common property - to leave traces of the interaction of material bodies. In the materialist philosophical tradition, starting with French materialists XVIII century, this property was called “reflection”. Outside and independently of interaction, reflection does not exist. The basis for the emergence of consciousness was evolution various forms reflections in inanimate and living nature.
Now they distinguish: 1) reflected in in a broad sense , as a universal property (attribute) of matter associated with the interaction of material bodies, and 2) information interactions in living nature and in society (reflection in a narrower sense, involving the active use of information). In inanimate nature, the trace from the influence of one object on another does not become for the latter a source of its own activity. For example, when the sun heats a stone, it does not cause any internal activity in the stone. During information interaction external influence activates the internal program of self-propulsion of the object (a person overheated in the sun, unlike a stone, can go into the shade).
In living nature, the following forms of evolution of information interaction are distinguished:
Irritability is the body’s response to environmental influences (appears in plants and single-celled living organisms);
Sensitivity is the body’s ability to have sensations that reflect the individual properties of objects and phenomena affecting it (appears in lower invertebrate animals);
Neurophysiological reflection is the combination of sensations into a sensory image of an object, or representation (appears in vertebrates that have a nervous system and a brain);
Higher mental activity - the development of complexes of complex conditioned reflexes, play and instrumental activity, memory and emotions (in mammals with a developed brain);
Human consciousness.
The difference between consciousness and the psyche of animals.
Main distinctive features consciousnesses are:
Abstract-logical thinking associated with the ability to reproduce the essential characteristics and connections of reality, not given directly in perception;
Goal setting as the ability to ideally construct the desired product of activity, which allows a person to creatively transform reality, and not passively fit into it;
Self-awareness, which determines the possibility of distinguishing oneself from the external environment;
Language as a second signaling system that allows us to navigate not so much by real physical processes, how many according to their signs and symbols.
Consciousness and language. Human consciousness is associated with tongue as a way of their existence. They do not exist without each other: consciousness reflects reality, and language designates and expresses what is essential in this reflection. A person develops verbal thinking - an internal pronunciation of the situation or text that he is reading. Internal speech has a shortened form compared to external speech. It omits non-main words, which are reconstructed according to the context, and only the main words and topics are pronounced. Thus, in order to become aware of our own thoughts, we translate them into words. Thus, ideal images of consciousness are transmitted to us through material carrier - speech sounds and writing signs. The development of consciousness and language occurs simultaneously. By improving his language, a person simultaneously improves his own consciousness.
Structure of consciousness. The analysis of the structure of consciousness was initially based on data from psychology, which identified the following elements of consciousness: thinking, emotions, will, memory, attention. Thinking includes a whole complex of different abilities: conceptual reflection of the properties and relationships of things and phenomena, orientation in the world, control of instrumental activities (operations with objects), operations with numbers (ideal substitutes for objects in consciousness), calculation of specific situations and design of the future (plans and dreams ), creative imagination, moral assessment and self-esteem, reflection (thinking), etc.
Philosophy most often considers the structure of human consciousness and psyche as three-level, consisting of spheres of the unconscious (the subconscious is adjacent to it), consciousness and superconsciousness. The unconscious is innate instincts, as well as thoughts and feelings that are unconscious to us, deeply hidden in memory. The subconscious is the automatic output of previously memorized information (for example, multiplication tables, poetry, swimming or cycling skills). Superconsciousness is understood as the highest stage of the creative process of reflecting the world - intuition (guess, insight). Unlike the subconscious, the activity of the superconscious is not realized under any conditions; only its results are realized. Intuition is an emotional-rational process of guessing or “direct perception” of the truth, which does not require special logical justification.
Psychoanalytic philosophy distinguishes three spheres of the human psyche: “Super-ego” (traditions, ideals, values and cultural norms); "I" (consciousness); “It” (a set of unconscious instincts, complexes, repressed experiences, etc.). The “I”, being connected with the “Super-I” and “It”, seems to be balancing between them. Z. Freud believed that it was necessary to help people become aware of the unconscious and thereby expand the sphere of their freedom, to get rid of the power of “It”. He believed that we should expand the cultural “Super-Ego” in our psyche.
Consciousness is a subject of study in philosophy, sociology and psychology. Matter and consciousness are the most extremely broad philosophical concepts. There are no other more extreme concepts. Through the categories “matter” and “consciousness” the subject of cognition “compresses” nature, society and reality as a whole into two concepts matter And consciousness. Then a philosophical understanding arises: matter or consciousness? Depending on who the philosopher is (materialist or idealist), the answer is given: matter is primary or consciousness is primary.
Materialism emphasizes:
Consciousness is a property, a product of highly organized matter;
Consciousness is an objective image of the objective world (Lenin);
Consciousness in epistemological, epistemological terms ideally reflects matter. In this case, consciousness organically interacts with matter.
Idealism emphasizes that consciousness itself, according to its internal laws, develops and gives rise to matter.
For the first time, Plato raised the question in terms of a clear division of what is primary and what is secondary, matter or consciousness.
Plato (427-347): “The world of ideas is true reality, and the world of things is only a shadow of the world of ideas.”
Thus, in philosophical terms, consciousness is understood as the broadest possible philosophical category, which is considered in comparison with the category “matter”.
Consciousness as a subject of sociology means considering consciousness as a reflection of the interests and ideas of certain classes. This is the position of materialists. Marx.
Marx: “Consciousness is a special being.” “The economically dominant class dominates society and spiritually.” For example, this provision in relation to the pre-revolutionary Russian society can be understood as follows: the whole society is divided into 2 polar parts:
Pro-Western nobility, pro-Western nobility and liberal pro-Western intelligentsia;
People with soil culture (from merchant to peasant).
Also according to certain provisions, norms Russian Empire political revolutionaries could go into exile at their own expense (pro-Western image). Lenin did just that (in a 1st class carriage). Consequently, the nobility reflects its existence in norms and certain provisions . Among the people, the leading attitudes and values were the fist; in the city - a merchant and shopkeeper who had anti-Western values and, therefore, their ideas about life were polar in relation to the nobility.
Thus, sociological understanding consciousness is interpreted in connection with social existence, social status of classes and strata.
In psychology consciousness determines the level of organization of a person’s inner world. Here consciousness is interpreted from the points of view of various natural disciplines. Consciousness in neurophysiology (dominant attitudes) (Uznadze) is understood as something that is held by the attention of the individual; if something is not retained, then it all goes into the subconscious, then into the unconscious. Thus consciousness in psychology understood as a very small part of the psyche.
Consciousness from a psychological perspective in the USSR was studied by P.K. Anokhin, who considered consciousness as a functional system.
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