Sensory cognition is cognition through the senses (vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch).	Rational cognition is cognition through thinking.	Intuition - ability direct comprehension truth as a result of “insight”, “inspiration”, “insight” without relying on logical justifications and evidence.
Forms sensory knowledge: 1. sensation is a reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process;	Forms2. perception – a sensory image of a holistic picture of an object; 3. representation - an image of the object of cognition, imprinted in memory	rational knowledge: 1. concept is a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object, phenomenon, process;
2. a judgment is a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, phenomenon, process;	3. inference (conclusion) - a mental connection between several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them. Types of inference: · inductive (from particular to general);	· deductive (from general to specific);
· Similarly.	Kinds

intuition: · mystical – associated with life experiences, emotions;

· intellectual – associated with mental activity. Features of sensory cognition: · spontaneity;

· visibility and objectivity;· reproduction of external properties and aspects.

Features of rational cognition: · reliance on the results of sensory cognition; abstractness and generality;. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is lower, the second is higher. Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge of reality. Outside of sensory representation, man has no real knowledge. For example, many concepts modern science very abstract, and yet they are not free from sensory content. Not only because these concepts ultimately owe their origin to the experience of people, but also because in their form they exist in the form of a system of sensory signs. On the other hand, knowledge cannot do without rational data from experience and their inclusion in the results and course of intellectual development of mankind.

2. Emotions(affective form of manifestation of moral feelings) and feelings(emotions expressed in concepts - love, hatred, etc.) - motivate the sustainability of the interests and goals of the subject of knowledge
3. Misconception – the content of the subject's knowledge that does not correspond to the reality of the object, but is accepted as truth. Sources of misconceptions: errors in the transition from sensory to rational knowledge, incorrect transfer of someone else's experience.
4. Lie – deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
5. Knowledge- the result of knowledge of reality, the content of consciousness received by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective natural connections and relationships real world. The ambiguity of the term “knowledge”:
knowledge as abilities, skills, skills based on awareness;

· knowledge as cognitively significant information;

· knowledge as a person’s attitude to reality.

6. Types of knowledge:

· Everyday – built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. Based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationships with each other and with nature. Reduces to a statement of facts and their description)

· Practical – built on actions, mastery of things, transformation of the world

· Artistic – built on an image (a holistic reflection of the world and the person in it. Built on an image, not a concept)

· Scientific – built on concepts (Understanding of reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)

· Rational – reflection of reality in logical concepts, based on rational thinking

· Irrational – a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, anomalous and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

· Personal (implicit) – depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity

7. Forms of knowledge:

· Scientific – objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge

· Unscientific – scattered, unsystematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws

· Pre-scientific – prototype, prerequisites of scientific knowledge

· Parascientific – incompatible with existing scientific knowledge

· Pseudoscientific – deliberately using speculation and prejudice

· Anti-scientific – utopian and deliberately distorting view of reality

Truth and its criteria. The relativity of truth.

In many ways, the problem of the reliability of our knowledge about the world is determined by the answer to the fundamental question of the theory of knowledge: "What is truth?"

1. In the history of philosophy, there have been different views on the possibilities of obtaining reliable knowledge:

· Empiricism – all knowledge about the world is justified only by experience (F. Bacon)

· Sensualism – only with the help of sensations can one understand the world (D. Hume)

· Rationalism – reliable knowledge can only be gleaned from reason itself (R. Descartes)

· Agnosticism – “the thing in itself” is unknowable (I. Kant)

· Skepticism – it is impossible to obtain reliable knowledge about the world (M. Montaigne)

True there is a process, and not some one-time act of comprehending an object in full at once.

Truth is one, but it has objective, absolute and relative aspects, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths.

Objective truth- this is the content of knowledge that does not depend either on man or on humanity.

Absolute truth- this is comprehensive, reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

Relative truth- this is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; This is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

The difference between absolute and relative truths(or absolute and relative in objective truth) in the degree of accuracy and completeness of reflection of reality. Truth is always specific, it is always associated with a specific place, time and circumstances.

Not everything in our life can be assessed from the point of view of truth or error (lie). So, we can talk about different assessments historical events, alternative interpretations of works of art, etc.

2. Truth– this is knowledge that corresponds to its subject and coincides with it. Other definitions:

1. correspondence of knowledge to reality;

2. what is confirmed by experience;

3. some kind of agreement, convention;

4. property of self-consistency of knowledge;

5. usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.

3. Criteria of truth- something that certifies the truth and allows us to distinguish it from error.

1. compliance with the laws of logic;

2. compliance with previously discovered laws of science;

3. compliance with fundamental laws;

4. simplicity, cost-effectiveness of the formula;

5. paradoxical idea;

6. practice.

4. Practice- a holistic organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.

Forms practices:

1. material production (labor, transformation of nature);

2. social action(revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.);

3. scientific experiment.

Functions practices:

1. source of knowledge (practical needs brought the existing sciences to life.);

2. the basis of knowledge (a person does not just observe or contemplate the world, but in the process of its life transforms it);

3. the purpose of cognition (for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities);

4. criterion of truth (until some position expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple conclusion is tested experimentally and put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption)).

Meanwhile, practice is both definite and indefinite, absolute and relative. Absolute in the sense that only developing practice can finally prove any theoretical or other provisions. At the same time, this criterion is relative, since practice itself develops, improves and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition. Therefore, the idea of ​​complementarity is put forward in philosophy: the leading criterion of truth is practice, which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment, is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.

Thinking and activity.

1. Activity is a way of relating to the outside world, consisting in transformation and subordination of it to human goals (conscious, productive, transformative and social in nature)

2. Differences between human activity and animal activity

Human activity	Animal activity
Human activity	Animal activity
Adaptation to the natural environment through its large-scale transformation, leading to the creation of an artificial environment for human existence. A person maintains his natural organization unchanged, while at the same time changing his lifestyle.	Adaptation to environmental conditions primarily through the restructuring of one’s own body, the mechanism of which is mutational changes fixed by the environment
Goal setting in activity	Expediency in behavior
Conscious setting of goals related to the ability to analyze the situation (reveal cause-and-effect relationships, anticipate results, think through the most appropriate ways to achieve them)	Submission to instinct, actions are initially programmed

3. Subject and object of activity

4. Structure of activity: Motive (a set of external and internal conditions that cause the activity of the subject and determine the direction of activity. Motives can be: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; drives and emotions; ideals) – Goal (this is a conscious image the result towards which a person’s action is aimed. Activity consists of a chain of actions) – Methods – Process (Actions) – Result.

5.Types of motives: needs, social. attitudes, beliefs, interests, drives and emotions (unconscious), ideals

Types of actions according to M. Weber:

· goal-oriented (Characterized by a rationally set and thoughtful goal. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and by-products of his actions acts purposefully.);

· value-rational (Characterized by a conscious determination of one’s direction and a consistently planned orientation towards it. But its meaning is not in achieving any goal, but in the fact that the individual follows his beliefs about duty, dignity, beauty, piety, etc.) ;

· affective (Determined by the emotional state of the individual. He acts under the influence of affect if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, etc.);

· traditional (Based on a long-term habit. Often this is an automatic reaction to habitual irritation in the direction of a previously learned attitude)

People's activities unfold in various spheres of social life; their direction, content, and means are infinitely diverse.

6. Types of activity:

6.1 work (aimed at achieving a goal, practical usefulness, mastery, personal development, transformation)

6.2 game (the process of the game is more important than its goal; the dual nature of the game: real and conditional)

6.3 learning (learning new things)

6.4 communication (exchange of ideas, emotions)

6.4.1 two-way and one-way (communication); concept of dialogue

6.4.2 structure: subject – goal – content – ​​means – recipient

6.4.3 classifications: direct - indirect, direct - indirect

6.4.4 types of subjects of communication: real, illusory, imaginary

6.4.5 functions: socialization (formation and development of interpersonal relationships as a condition for the formation of a person as an individual); cognitive, psychological, identification (an expression of a person’s involvement in a group: “I am one of my own” or “I am a stranger”); organizational

7. Types of activities:

7.1 Material (material-production and social-transformative) and spiritual (cognitive, value-oriented, prognostic)

7.2 By subject: individual – collective

7.3 By nature: reproductive – creative

7.4 According to legal norms: legal – illegal

7.5 According to moral standards: moral – immoral

7.6 In relation to social progress: progressive – reactionary

7.7 Depending on the spheres public life: economic, social, political, spiritual

7.8 According to the characteristics of the manifestation of human activity: external - internal

8. Creation– a type of activity that generates something qualitatively new, never existing before (the nature of an independent activity or its component).

9. Mechanisms creative activity:

· combination,

· imagination,

· fantasy,

· intuition

Needs and interests

In order to develop, a person is forced to satisfy various needs, which are called requirements.

Need- this is a person’s need for what constitutes necessary condition his existence. The motives (from the Latin movere - to set in motion, to push) of activity reveal human needs.

Types of human needs

· Biological (organic, material) - needs for food, clothing, housing, etc.

· Social - needs to communicate with other people, in social activities, in public recognition, etc.

· Spiritual (ideal, cognitive) - needs for knowledge, creative activity, creation of beauty, etc.

Biological, social and spiritual needs are interconnected. In humans, biological needs in their essence, unlike animals, become social. For most people, social needs dominate over ideal ones: the need for knowledge often acts as a means of acquiring a profession and taking a worthy position in society.

There are other classifications of needs, for example, the classification developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow:

Basic needs
Primary (congenital)	Secondary (purchased)
Physiological: in reproduction, food, breathing, clothing, housing, rest, etc.	Social: in social connections, communication, affection, caring for another person and attention to oneself, participation in joint activities
Existential (Latin exsistentia - existence): in the security of one’s existence, comfort, job security, accident insurance, confidence in tomorrow etc.	Prestigious: in self-respect, respect from others, recognition, achieving success and high praise, career growth Spiritual: in self-actualization, self-expression, self-realization

The needs of each next level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

One should remember about reasonable limitation of needs, since, firstly, not all human needs can be fully satisfied, and secondly, needs should not contradict the moral norms of society.
Reasonable needs- these are the needs that help the development in a person of his truly human qualities: the desire for truth, beauty, knowledge, the desire to bring good to people, etc.

Needs underlie the emergence of interests and inclinations.

Interest(lat. interest - to have meaning) - a person’s purposeful attitude towards any object of his need.

People's interests are directed not so much at the objects of need, but at those social conditions that make these objects more or less accessible, especially material and spiritual goods that ensure the satisfaction of needs.

Interests are determined by the position of various social groups and individuals in society. They are more or less recognized by people and are the most important incentives for various types of activities.

There are several classifications of interests:

according to their carrier: individual; group; the whole society.

by focus: economics; social; political; spiritual.

Interest must be distinguished from inclination. The concept of “interest” expresses focus on a specific subject. The concept of “inclination” expresses a focus on a certain activity.

Interest is not always combined with inclination (much depends on the degree of accessibility of a particular activity).

A person’s interests express the direction of his personality, which largely determines him life path, nature of activity, etc.

Freedom and the need for human activity

1. Liberty- a word with multiple meanings. Extremes in the understanding of freedom:

The essence of freedom– a choice associated with intellectual and emotional-volitional tension (burden of choice).

Social conditions for the realization of freedom of choice of a free person:

· on the one hand – social norms, on the other hand – forms of social activity;

· on the one hand – the place of a person in society, on the other hand – the level of development of society;

· socialization.

1. Freedom is a specific way of being for a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an action in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on awareness of the objective properties and relationships of things, the laws of the surrounding world.

2. Responsibility is an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of mutual requirements placed on them.

3. Types of responsibility:

· Historical, political, moral, legal, etc.;

· Individual (personal), group, collective.

· Social responsibility is a person’s tendency to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.

· Legal responsibility – responsibility before the law (disciplinary, administrative, criminal; material)

Responsibility- a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of mutual requirements placed on them.

Responsibility, accepted by a person as the basis of his personal moral position, acts as the foundation of the internal motivation of his behavior and actions. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.

Social responsibility is expressed in a person's tendency to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.

As the human freedom responsibility increases. But its focus is gradually shifting from the collective (collective responsibility) to the person himself (individual, personal responsibility).

Only a free and responsible person can fully realize himself in social behavior and thereby reveal his potential to the maximum extent.

System structure of society: elements and subsystems

1. The concept of society. Society is a complex and multi-valued concept

A. B in a broad sense words

· This is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes: methods, interactions of people; forms of unification of people

B. In the narrow sense of the word

· A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin(for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly)

· A separate specific society, country, state, region(for example, modern Russian society, French society)

· Historical stage in the development of mankind(eg feudal society, capitalist society)

· Humanity as a whole

2. Functions of society

· Production of material goods and services

· Distribution of labor products (activities)

· Regulation and management of activities and behavior

· Human reproduction and socialization

· Spiritual production and regulation of human activity

3. Public relations - diverse forms of human interaction, as well as connections that arise between different social groups (or within them)

Society - totality public relations. The essence of society is in the relationships between people.

· Material relations – arise and develop directly in the course of a person’s practical activity outside of his consciousness and independently of him. This:

Industrial relations

· Ecological relations

· Relationships related to childbearing

· Spiritual (ideal) relationships - are formed by first “passing through the consciousness” of people and are determined by their spiritual values. This:

· Moral relations

· Political relations

· Legal relations

· Artistic relations

· Philosophical relations

· Religious relations

Having a certain structure and stages associated with the stages of formation and development of society. Human cognition develops along with the complication of practical activity.

Exist different types human knowledge. Some of the ancient forms are religious and philosophical. The founder of positivism, O. Comte, in the mid-19th century, proposed a concept reflecting the types of knowledge. In his concept, he considered three forms, successively replacing one another.

He considered the first form religious knowledge. It is based on individual faith and traditions.

The second form is philosophical knowledge. It is based on the author's intuition or other concept and is speculative and rational in nature.

Scientific knowledge is the third form. It is based on recording facts against the background of a targeted experiment or observation.

Today it is obvious that all these types of knowledge are developing in parallel and exist in the same way as they exist in natural conditions plants and animals.

This also occurs. According to the concept of M. Polanyi, types of knowledge are classified in accordance with personal characteristics. The English philosopher proceeded from the fact that knowledge is an active comprehension of things - this is an action that requires special tools and special art. In the “personal,” according to Polanyi, not only reality is captured, but also the personality with its interest in knowledge. In this case, there is a complex of not only any statements, but also the experiences of the individual. Thus, Polanyi identified the following types of knowledge:

1. Explicit, articulated, expressed in theories, judgments, concepts.
2. Implicit, implicit, not amenable to full reflection of human experience.

Tacit knowledge is embodied in bodily skills, practical skills, and perception patterns. It is not fully reflected in textbooks, but is transmitted through communication and personal contact.

As a main component of the structure of general education, knowledge is the result of knowledge of the laws of nature, thinking, society, and reality. This result reflects the generalized human experience that was accumulated in the course of social historical practice.

Educational content includes such types of knowledge as:

1. Main terms and concepts that reflect reality. In addition to everyday reality, they also express
2. Facts of everyday reality and science. They are used when defending and proving their ideas.
3. Basic scientific laws. They reveal the relationships between various phenomena and objects.
4. Theories that contain a body of scientific knowledge about a certain system of subjects, objects, the relationship between them, as well as methods for predicting and explaining phenomena in a specific
5. Evaluation knowledge. They reflect the norms of attitudes towards various life phenomena.
6. Knowledge of management methods scientific activity, as well as the history of information acquisition.

All of these types have features related to the functions and technologies used in teaching.

Knowledge may also be:

1. Emotional and rational.
2. Essentialistic (based on the use of quantitative means of analysis) and phenomenolistic (based on the use of “qualitative” concepts).
3. Theoretical and empirical (experimental).
4. Private scientific and philosophical.
5. Humanities and natural sciences.

From a pedagogical and psychological point of view, the differences between rational (natural science) and sensory (humanitarian) knowledge are of greatest interest.

Cognition is the process of a person’s comprehension of new, previously unknown knowledge.
Structure process of cognition:

1. The subject of cognition is an active individual, social group or society as a whole, endowed with consciousness and goal-setting.
2. The object of cognition is what the subject’s cognitive activity is directed towards. Can be animate (a person himself, an animal) and inanimate (natural phenomena); material (a really existing object) or ideal (hypothesis, theory).
3. The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relationship of thought to reality, existing in a logical linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs.

Characteristics of the main types of cognition

The question of the relationship between the sensory and the rational gave rise to two philosophical directions.
· intellectual – associated with mental activity.- the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.
· visibility and objectivity;- our knowledge can be obtained only with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.
But it is impossible to contrast the sensual and rational in cognition, since the two stages of cognition manifest themselves as a single process. The difference between them is not temporary, but qualitative: the first stage is lower, the second is higher. Knowledge is the unity of sensory and rational knowledge of reality.

Knowledge- the result of knowledge of reality, the content of consciousness.

Types of knowledge:
Misconception- knowledge that does not correspond to a real object, but is accepted as truth. A lie is a deliberate distortion of the image of an object.
Everyday- based on common sense, formed as a result Everyday life people, comes down to stating facts and describing them.
Practical- the basis is the activities of people to realize their needs.
Artistic- built on an image, characterized by emotionality and subjectivity.
Scientific- characterized by a desire for objectivity, consistency, logic, exists in the form of concepts and categories, general principles, laws, theories.
Rational- reflects reality in terms, based on rational thinking.
Irrational- reflects reality in emotions, often based on intuition, does not obey the laws of logic.

Forms of knowledge

Scientific- objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge
empirical level methods: – observation; – experiment; - description.	theoretical level methods: – induction (from particular to general); – deduction (from general to specific); – analysis (decomposition of the whole into parts) – synthesis (combining individual knowledge into a single whole)
Unscientific- scattered, unsystematized knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws
pre-scientific – prerequisites of scientific knowledge parascientific – incompatible with existing scientific knowledge pseudoscientific – deliberately using conjectures and prejudices anti-scientific – utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of ​​reality

Features of social cognition:
- the subject and object of knowledge coincide (society studies itself, the sociologist sees the process from the inside, since he himself is a participant in social relations. Therefore, a personal assessment of social phenomena plays an important role);
- the researcher’s capabilities are limited (it is not always possible to conduct an experiment);
- the complexity and variability of the object of study gives rise to a pluralism of points of view on society.

When studying society, one should use concrete historical approach:
- establish a relationship between the past and the future;
- identifying general patterns, it is necessary to remember the originality and uniqueness of the historical path of peoples, countries, regions;
- study social phenomena in their diversity and interdependence;
- consider current activities as the result of previous ones.

Features of cognition through art:
- emotional coloring;
- carried out using images.
Image- this is a reflection of reality, possessing certain properties of a really existing object, refracted through the inner world of the creator (artist, director, writer).
Canon– a set of applied rules for creating an image. Characterized by the peculiarities of the worldview of the era. (For example, in the period of antiquity the beauty human body, proportionality; in the Middle Ages the body was perceived as something sinful, therefore it is depicted flat, covered with clothes).

How is the nature of everyday knowledge defined in the text? What function in people's lives, according to the author, does everyday knowledge perform? Based on social science knowledge, explain the meaning of the concept of “cognition”.

In our time, it is not difficult to fall into the mistake of identifying knowledge in general with only scientific knowledge (or even with what is commonly considered scientific) and discarding all other types of knowledge or considering them only to the extent that they can be likened to scientific knowledge. This is explained by the modern peculiar social atmosphere, the cult of science inherent in modern society and existing despite the growing criticism of the costs of scientific and technological progress and even in parallel with it. The development of sciences not only discovered many facts, properties, laws, established many truths - it developed a specific type of thinking. But to confuse knowledge in general with its scientific form is a deep mistake. In everyday life, not all problems facing a person and society require an indispensable turn to science: the book of life is open not only to the eyes of a scientist, it is open to everyone who is able to perceive things, feel and think.

If we proceed from the fact that the basis of all knowledge is experience in the broadest sense of the word, then the types of human knowledge are distinguished primarily because of the type of experience on which they are based.

It makes sense to distinguish between the “passive” knowledge of the reader work of art or a student recording a lecture, from the knowledge of the author, the knowledge of the creator - be it a scientist, artist or religious devotee. (Although in the first case an element of creativity is not excluded; they say that a brilliant writer also needs a brilliant reader.) “Author’s” knowledge most clearly differs by type, primarily by the nature of personal inclination... However, harmony is also characteristic of outstanding creative personalities cognitive abilities.

Everyday cognition and knowledge is based primarily on observation and ingenuity; it is empirical in nature and is better consistent with generally accepted life experience than with abstract scientific constructs.

The significance of everyday knowledge as a precursor to other forms of knowledge should not be underestimated: common sense often turns out to be subtler and more insightful than the mind of another scientist... Based on common sense and everyday consciousness, such knowledge is an important approximate basis for the everyday behavior of people and their relationships with each other and with nature. Here is his common point with science. This form of knowledge develops and becomes enriched with the progress of scientific and artistic knowledge; it is closely related to the “language” of human

culture as a whole, which is formed on the basis of serious theoretical work in the process of world-historical human development. As a rule, everyday knowledge comes down to stating facts and describing them.

(A. G. Spirkin)

Explanation.

1) misconception:

The identification of knowledge in general exclusively with scientific knowledge;

2) reasons:

The cult of science inherent in modern society;

Having a specific type of thinking.

Elements of the answer can be given in other, similar in meaning formulations

Explanation.

The correct answer must contain the following elements:

2) two other differences, for example:

Other differences may be cited

Explanation.

The following explanations may be given:

1) not all problems can be studied and understood within the framework of one type (form) of knowledge;

2) empirical and theoretical knowledge are interconnected and can hardly be isolated from each other (empirical information is recorded in concepts, judgments, inferences, etc.);

3) the combination of different types (forms) of knowledge gives the most complete picture of the world.

Other explanations may be given

Explanation.

Three questions must be answered:

1) answer to the first question:

Empirical nature;

2) answer to the second question:

An approximate basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationships with each other and with nature;

3) answer to the third question:

Cognition is a type of activity whose content is reflection objective reality the senses and the human mind, and the result is the acquisition of knowledge.

Answers to questions can be given in other formulations that are similar in meaning.

General concept knowledge

"All men by nature desire to know"

This is the famous first sentence of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Here you can notice interesting feature: knowledge, at least since Aristotle, can be understood as desire, figuratively speaking, as intellectual thirst. When knowledge is understood as a desire, it, by definition, must be accompanied by some kind of need, a lack of something. Those who thirst for knowledge do not yet possess it, but are still in search of it. Aristotle praises intellectual curiosity; in his opinion, this property is extremely important - it makes a person human.

However, if we go beyond the humanistic tradition, we may well encounter completely different views of knowledge. One example of this is the philosophy of Taoism, which holds that knowing something well often means mastering it perfectly. Often, when we say “know,” we mean “know how...” (i.e., “be able to”), and not “know that...”. It seems that this kind of knowledge - practical rather than intellectual - is extremely valued by Lao Tzu. However, this already relates rather to the classification of knowledge. And before proceeding with the classification of knowledge, it would be more appropriate to define the concept of knowledge itself.

In a broad sense, knowledge is a subjective image of reality in the form of concepts and ideas.

Knowledge in the narrow sense is the possession of verified information (answers to questions) that allows you to solve a given problem.

Knowledge is the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective natural connections and relationships of the real world.

So, the ambiguity of the term “knowledge”:

Knowledge as abilities, skills, skills based on awareness;

Knowledge as cognitively significant information;

Knowledge as a person's attitude to reality.

From all of the above we can conclude that knowledge is the result cognitive activity a person, a certain body of information and knowledge in any area. Knowledge helps people rationally organize their activities and decide various problems, arising in its process.

Types and forms of knowledge

Knowledge is not limited to the sphere of science; knowledge in one form or another exists beyond the boundaries of science. Every form public consciousness: science, philosophy, mythology, politics, religion, etc. - correspond to specific forms of knowledge. There are also forms of knowledge that have a conceptual, symbolic or artistic-exemplary basis.

Highlight different kinds knowledge: scientific, extra-scientific, everyday-practical (everyday, common sense), intuitive, religious, etc.

Everyday practical - knowledge that existed in the early stages human history and providing basic information about nature and the surrounding reality (the so-called common sense, signs, edifications, recipes, personal experience, traditions, etc.), is unsystematic, unsubstantiated, unwritten. Ordinary knowledge serves as the basis for a person’s orientation in the world around him, the basis for his everyday behavior and foresight, but usually contains errors and contradictions.

Scientific is knowledge based on rationality, characterized by objectivity and universality, and claims to be universally valid. Scientific knowledge is the process of obtaining objective, true knowledge. Its task is to describe, explain and predict the process and phenomenon of reality. Scientific revolutions, occurring during development scientific knowledge and leading to a change in theories and principles, are replaced by periods of normal development of science (deepening and detailing knowledge).

Scientific knowledge is characterized by logical validity, evidence, reproducibility of results, verifiability, and the desire to eliminate errors and overcome contradictions.

The form of scientific knowledge is younger than many forms of extra-scientific knowledge.

Extrascientific knowledge is not someone’s invention; it is produced by a certain intellectual community according to norms and standards that differ from rationalistic ones; they have their own sources and means of knowledge. In the history of culture, forms of knowledge classified as “department” of extra-scientific knowledge are united by a common concept - esotericism.

They also divide forms of knowledge according to the degree of scientificity; knowledge can be scientific and extra-scientific.

Scientific knowledge can be:

Empirical (based on experience or observation)

Theoretical (based on the analysis of abstract models).

Scientific knowledge in any case must be substantiated on an empirical or theoretical basis.

Theoretical knowledge - abstractions, analogies, diagrams that reflect the structure and nature of the processes of changing objects occurring in the subject area. This knowledge explains phenomena and can be used to predict the behavior of objects.

Extra-scientific knowledge can be:

parascientific - knowledge incompatible with the existing epistemological standard. A wide class of parascientific (para from the Greek - about, with) knowledge includes teachings or reflections about phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of scientific criteria;

pseudoscientific - deliberately exploiting conjectures and prejudices. Pseudoscience often presents science as the work of outsiders. Symptoms of pseudoscience include illiterate pathos, fundamental intolerance to refuting arguments, and pretentiousness. Pseudoscientific knowledge is very sensitive to the topic of the day, sensation. Its peculiarity is that it cannot be united by a paradigm, cannot be systematic or universal. Pseudoscience coexists with scientific knowledge. It is believed that pseudoscientific knowledge reveals itself and develops through quasi-scientific knowledge;

quasi-scientific - they are looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion. Quasi-scientific knowledge, as a rule, flourishes in conditions of strictly hierarchical science, where criticism of those in power is impossible, where the ideological regime is strictly manifested. In the history of Russia, the periods of “triumph of quasi-science” are well known: Lysenkoism; fixism as a quasi-science in Soviet geology of the 50s; defamation of cybernetics, etc.;

anti-scientific - as utopian and deliberately distorting ideas about reality. The prefix “anti” draws attention to the fact that the subject and methods of research are opposite to science. It is associated with the eternal need to discover a common, easily accessible “cure for all diseases.” Particular interest and craving for anti-science arise during periods of social instability. But, although this phenomenon is quite dangerous, a fundamental deliverance from anti-science cannot occur;

pseudoscientific - represent intellectual activity that speculates on a set of popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, Bigfoot, the monster from Loch Ness;

everyday and practical - delivering basic information about nature and the surrounding reality. People, as a rule, have a large amount of everyday knowledge, which is produced every day and is the initial layer of all knowledge. Sometimes the axioms of common sense contradict scientific principles and hinder the development of science. Sometimes, on the contrary, science, through a long and difficult process of proof and refutation, comes to the formulation of those provisions that have long established themselves in the environment of everyday knowledge. Ordinary knowledge includes common sense, signs, edifications, recipes, personal experience, and traditions. Although it records the truth, it does so unsystematically and without evidence. Its peculiarity is that it is used by a person almost unconsciously and in its application does not require preliminary systems of evidence;

personal - depending on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity. Collective knowledge is generally valid (transpersonal), presupposes the presence of concepts, methods, techniques and rules of construction common to the entire system.

Folk science is a special form of extra-scientific and extra-rational knowledge. Previously, it was the privilege of shamans, priests, and clan elders; now it has become the business of individual groups or subjects (healers, healers, psychics).

According to other sources, types of knowledge are classified as follows:

Everyday - built on common sense (It is empirical in nature. Based on common sense and everyday consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis for the everyday behavior of people, their relationships with each other and with nature. Reduces to a statement of facts and their description)

Practical - built on actions, mastery of things, transformation of the world

Artistic - built on an image (A holistic reflection of the world and the person in it. Built on an image, not a concept)

Scientific - built on concepts (Understanding of reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms)

Rational - a reflection of reality in logical concepts, built on rational thinking

Irrational - a reflection of reality in emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, anomalous and paradoxical phenomena; does not obey the laws of logic and science.

Personal (implicit) - depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.

Characteristics of men