Rabbi
Khazan
Shamash
Gabay

• What types of synagogues are there?

Ashkenazim and Sephardim
Hasidim and non-Hasidim

About the name "synagogue"

From ancient times to the present day, the synagogue is called in Hebrew “Beit Knesset,” which literally means “house of meeting.” The word "synagogue" comes from Greek word synagoge (“assembly”) which means the same thing as the word “kneset” in Hebrew: “assembly.”

In the entire Talmud, a synagogue is called “beit tefilah” - “house of prayer” only once. The very name "Beit Knesset" emphasizes that the synagogue is more than just a room for public prayer.

The synagogue is also called “shul” in Yiddish (from the German “Schule” - “school”).

History of synagogues

The exact time of the establishment of synagogues is not known. Most historians believe that they arose after the destruction of the First Temple (586 BC) and the beginning of the Babylonian captivity. Jews exiled to Babylon began to gather in each other's homes to pray and learn Torah together. Later, special buildings for prayer were built - the first synagogues.

When the Babylonian exiles returned to their homeland and built the Second Temple in Jerusalem, they built a number of synagogues in Eretz Israel. Sources from the Second Temple period indicate that at that time there was a synagogue even on the Temple Mount.

The Second Temple revived Jewish life in Palestine, but many Jews remained in Babylon. For them, the synagogue retained its role spiritual center, a place of prayer and study of the law.

When the Romans razed the Second Temple to the ground, the synagogue became a citadel of faith, a place where Jews gathered, taught the Law, and prayed. It also happened that during enemy attacks, the synagogue became a citadel in the truest sense of the word.

Functions of the synagogue

After the expulsion from Israel, for Jewish communities scattered throughout the world, synagogues became the center of social, political and cultural life of the Jewish people.

Prayer

A synagogue is, first of all, a place for prayer. Judaism places great importance on public prayer. A synagogue is a place where a community gathers to pray.

Torah Study

Now, as in the distant past, synagogues often have schools where children and teenagers study Torah. The Talmud says that in Jerusalem there were four hundred and eighty synagogues, and at each of them there were two schools, primary and secondary. It is not for nothing that the name “Beit Midrash” (“house of learning”) has practically become synonymous with the name “Beit Knesset.” The synagogue and the beit midrash can be located in the same room or in different rooms connected by a corridor.

There is a custom, dating back to ancient times, of giving lectures in the synagogue on Saturdays and holidays on the topics of the weekly portion of the Torah or on any problems of Jewish law, usually associated with the upcoming holiday.

Such a conversation (drasha) is conducted by one of the most knowledgeable members of the community or a specially invited rabbi. In addition, on Saturdays, after morning or afternoon prayers, groups usually gather in synagogues to study the Torah.

Library

According to tradition, there should be books of Jewish teaching in the synagogue. It is considered a very pious act to buy books for such a library. In almost any synagogue you can find the Pentateuch with commentaries, the Mishnah, the Talmud, the works of the Rambam, the complete Shulchan Aruch, as well as hundreds or even thousands of other books. Any member of the community has the right to use these books. Usually they are allowed to be taken home, you just need to warn the synagogue servant, the shames, about this.

Center public life

The synagogue, in accordance with its name, is a place for meetings, gatherings, and various celebrations of both the entire community and its individual members. Bar mitzvahs, circumcisions, redemption of the firstborn, etc. are often held in the synagogue.

Sometimes the synagogue is the seat of the beit din - the rabbinical court. The board of the synagogue, as a rule, has funds to help those in need and provides loans. Thus, the synagogue often becomes a center of charity.

Previously, most synagogues had guest rooms where traveling Jews stayed, and there were also stables for several horses. Part of the building was occupied by a mikvah, so synagogues were often built near the river.

Construction of the synagogue

Architecture

There are no specific architectural forms prescribed for the synagogue. It can be a modest building, even a room in a house used for other purposes, or a luxurious building in any architectural style.

The law requires that the synagogue premises have windows. The Talmud warns against praying in a room without windows: people must see the sky.

At the entrance to the building there should be a vestibule, passing through which a person leaves his thoughts and worries material world, getting ready to pray.

The building is oriented towards Jerusalem (synagogues located in Jerusalem itself are oriented towards the Temple Mount). The Talmud requires that worshipers face Jerusalem when reading one of the most important prayers - the Amida.

According to the Talmud, the synagogue should stand on the highest place in the city. Historically, in order to fulfill this requirement, they resorted to all sorts of tricks. For example, they installed a pole on the roof of the synagogue, and then formally it was higher than other buildings.

Any synagogue, small or large, modest or luxuriously decorated, should be equipped accordingly.

Internal structure

Department for women - ezrat nashim

The midrash tells us that when the Jews gathered at Mount Sinai to receive the Ten Commandments, men and women stood apart. Separate room for women it was also in the Jerusalem Temple. In the synagogue, women also have a special place - “ezrat nashim” (the female half). Ezrat nashim can be located in the gallery, on the balcony (in the Temple the section for women was located upstairs) or in the prayer hall behind a special curtain called a “mekhitza” - a partition.

In explaining this tradition, Rabbi Lau, the former chief rabbi of Israel, writes: “Nothing should distract a person in the synagogue from prayer. The Torah says: know who you stand before. Therefore, when offering your prayers, a person should be extremely focused on communicating with Creator. Thoughts about household chores (wife) or romantic experiences are inappropriate here.”

Aron Akodesh

Near the wall opposite the entrance, where all worshipers face, there is an Aron HaKodesh - a cabinet or niche where Torah scrolls are stored; it is covered with a curtain called a parochet. Aron Akodesh is a symbolic likeness of the repository of the tablets with the Ten Commandments in the Holy of Holies of the Jerusalem Temple.

The closet contains Torah scrolls, the most sacred property of the synagogue. Usually the aron kodesh is placed against the wall facing Eretz Israel (in Israel - towards Jerusalem).

Ner Tamid

Above the Aron Akodesh is located the “Ner Tamid - “unquenchable lamp”. Previously, it was an oil candle. Now it is, as a rule, a lamp similar to a candle. The Ner Tamid always burns, symbolizing the menorah, the oil lamp of the Temple. The menorah had seven wicks, one of which were constantly burning.

Bima

In the center of the synagogue there is a raised platform called the bimah. The Torah is read from this elevation, and there is a table for the scroll on it. The Bima resembles the platform from which the Torah was read in the Temple.

Amud

In Ashkenazi synagogues (synagogues of immigrants from Germany), a special music stand - amud - is placed between the bimah and the aron kodesh, near which the chazan leads the prayer.

Amud can also be located on the side of Aron Akodesh.

Rabbi's place

Next to the Aron Hakodesh is the rabbi's seat. On the other side of the aron hakodesh there is a place for the hazan or guest speaker.

All these details are integral components of the interior decoration of the synagogue, but otherwise the interiors of different synagogues are very diverse. The synagogue is allowed to be decorated in accordance with the tastes and capabilities of the community.

Some synagogues are modern structures made of light metal, glass and concrete. Others are classic in style, with wood paneling and leather seats. Some have stained glass or murals depicting scenes of Jewish holidays, others do not. Restrictions apply only to images of people.

Synagogue positions

Synagogues are independent of each other; Each community independently elects its leadership and officials communities.

Rabbi

A rabbi, or rabbi, is the spiritual leader of a community. To obtain the title of rabbi, one must have a thorough knowledge of the Written and Oral Torah and pass difficult exams. Usually the rabbi is the leader of the community, which imposes on him a number of purely administrative responsibilities. But, of course, the main task of a rabbi, as in previous centuries, is to serve as a spiritual guide and resolve issues concerning Jewish law.

Khazan

The hazan leads public prayer and represents the entire community in its appeal to the Almighty. Therefore, another name for a person performing this function is “shliach zibur,” which literally means “messenger of the community.” Large wealthy communities maintain a permanent khazan. As a rule, the hazan leads prayer only on Saturdays and holidays. On holidays, the singing of the hazan may be accompanied by a male choir.

Depending on the needs of the community, the hazan may also perform other duties. On weekdays, the role of hazan is usually performed by one of the worshipers who has sufficient experience. Khazan must not only have a good voice and hearing, but also be a God-fearing person, have sufficient education - at least, understand the meaning of prayers in Hebrew.

Shamash

Shamash is a synagogue servant who has many responsibilities. He must monitor order and cleanliness in the synagogue and take care of the preservation of synagogue property and compliance with the prayer schedule. However, he often also performs the functions of a Torah reader, replaces the chazan, etc.

Gabay

Gabai, or parnas, is the leader of the community, a kind of “administrative director”. Often a synagogue is run by several gabais. They are engaged financial affairs synagogues, resolve administrative issues, etc.

What types of synagogues are there?

Many centuries of dispersion led to slight differences in the order of prayers, as well as some differences in the customs of different communities. However, in general, the order of service based on the Oral Teaching is the same. The fact that religious ceremonies Jews are practically the same in countries very distant from each other, amazes everyone who encounters it. In particular, the differences in the order of prayers are very slight and are noticeable only to those who know the service well. These differences give Jewish communities their unique flavor. different countries. Usually, synagogues differ from each other in accordance with their belonging to one or another tradition - Ashkenazi, Sephardic, Hasidic or non-Hasidic.

Ashkenazim and Sephardim

Over the past centuries, two socio-cultural communities have historically developed among the Jewish people - Ashkenazi and Sephardic - the differences between which relate, among other things, to the order of prayers, the structure of the synagogue, etc. Ashkenazi Jewry, to which most of the world's Jews belong today, was formed in the middle of the century in Northern France and Germany, spreading from there to most countries of Central, Eastern and Western Europe, as well as to the countries of North and South America, South Africa and Australia. The Sephardic socio-cultural complex has developed in Spain and Portugal, as well as in Italy, Turkey, the Balkans and North African countries. IN in a broad sense the concept of “Sephardic Jewry” includes all non-Ashkenazi communities, including those that are not directly related to Sephardim themselves, such as Mountain and Georgian Jews.

There are certain differences in the order of prayers between individual Sephardic communities. There are differences in the interior between the Ashkenazi and Sephardic synagogues. In Ashkenazi synagogues, between the bimah and the Aron Akodesh, a special music stand is placed - amud, near which the chazan leads the prayer. In Sephardic churches, as a rule, there is no amud, and the leader of the prayer stands at the bimah. In addition, a Sephardic synagogue can be decorated with carpets, and in general it has an oriental flavor, unlike an Ashkenazi synagogue, the design of which is closer to the European style.

Hasidim and non-Hasidim

There are also differences in the order of synagogue services between the two main groups of Ashkenazis - Hasidim and non-Hassidim. Moreover, the Hasidic version ("nusach") of the prayer borrowed a lot from the Sephardic tradition and is even called "Nusach Sefarad", i.e. "Spanish version" Nusach Gaari, adopted by the Lubavitcher Hasidim, is also close to it.

But all these differences, nevertheless, are not very significant. By and large, in order to convert a synagogue from Ashkenazi to Sephardic, from Sephardic to Turkish, from Turkish to Iranian, it is necessary to change only the prayer books that are located there, since the Torah scrolls themselves are the same for all synagogues.

What is a synagogue?

1. Synago#769;ha (from Greek #963;#965;#957;#945;#947;#969;#947;#942;, meeting; Hebrew #1489;#1461;#1468;#1497; #1514;#1499;#1456;#1468;#1504;#1462;#1505;#1462;#1514;#8206;, Beit Knesset house of assembly), after the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple, the main institution of the Jewish religion, a room serving as a place public worship and center religious life communities. The synagogue not only had a decisive influence on the formation of Judaism, but also served as the basis for the forms of public worship developed in Christianity and Islam.
2. SYNAGOGUE, Jewish house of prayer. The name comes from the Greek word synagoge ("assembly") and corresponds to the Hebrew word "kneset". The Hebrew name for a synagogue is "bet ha-knesset" ("house of meeting") or "bet ha-tefillah" ("house of prayer"). A Jewish house of prayer is also called “shul” in Yiddish (from German Schule “school”).

   The exact time of the establishment of synagogues is not known. They may have arisen after the destruction of the First Temple (586 BC). Numerous synagogues are known to have existed during the Second Temple period (516 BC - 70 AD). The synagogue played an important role in Jewish life. From early times it was both a place of meeting and learning, as well as prayer. Today, many of the largest synagogues function as cultural, educational and charitable centers. Many synagogues have religious schools for children.

   There are no specific architectural forms prescribed for the synagogue. It can be a modest building or even a room in a house used for other purposes, or a luxurious building in any architectural style. Indispensable interior details: a platform (“almemar” or “bima”) and an ark with Torah scrolls. Other traditional interior details include an eternal flame, an image of the tablets of the covenant (both elements are located above the ark) and two lamps. In Orthodox synagogues, men and women pray separately; Some synagogues have separate galleries for women.

   Synagogues are independent of each other; each community independently elects its officials: a rabbi, the spiritual head of the community, a teacher of the law and a preacher; the hazzana, or cantor, who leads the prayer; a reader reading scrolls of biblical books; and a shammasa, or servant, who looks after the building and performs other miscellaneous work. The position of hazzan initially included many responsibilities, but over time these were transferred to the shammas and other synagogue personnel, and the hazzan was left with only the responsibility of leading daily prayer. On holidays, the singing of hazzan may be accompanied by a male choir. Mixed choirs are found only in Reform or Progressive Conservative synagogues. These synagogues also use an organ and other musical instruments during services. See also TEMPLE; THE ARK.

   The Great Assembly (Hebrew "ha-Knesset ha-Gedola"), a legislative body that existed, according to Jewish tradition, in the 5th-3rd centuries. BC e. , in Palestine. Historical information information on this matter is very scarce; it is not known exactly how long this organ functioned, and some scientists even doubt its very existence. The Book of Nehemiah indicates that he made an agreement with the elders of the community, who apparently formed part of the Great Assembly.

   According to tradition, the members of the Great Assembly (which included many scribes) were considered the spiritual heirs of the prophets. They are often mentioned in the Talmud and other Jewish writings, and their names are associated with the establishment of certain religious institutions.

Each faith and religion has its own special terms, concepts, and rituals. And it is sometimes difficult for a person who does not know all this to understand. In this article I would like to focus specifically on Judaism and try to explain what a synagogue is.

About the origin of the word

First of all, you need to understand the concept itself. Translated from Greek language a synagogue is a meeting. However, in Hebrew given word sounds like “Beit Knesset,” which literally translates to “house of meeting.” It will be interesting that in the Talmud (the holy scripture of the Jews) the name of the synagogue appears only once as “beit tefilah”, which means “house of prayer”. This suggests that for Jews a synagogue is something more than a house of prayer.

A little history

So, having understood and understood that the synagogue is the church of the Jews, it is worth looking a little into the history of its origin. As for the time period, no one can say exactly when they began to appear; no data on this has been preserved. However, there is an opinion that the first synagogues began to appear at the time when the First Temple was destroyed and the Jews were taken captive to Babylon (6th century BC). At first they gathered in houses to study the Torah together and a little later began to build separate buildings for prayers and meetings. After returning to their homeland, the Second Temple was built, but at this time believers also began to build synagogues throughout their country. After the Second Temple was destroyed by the Romans, synagogues became a real refuge for Jews - often not only in the psychological meaning of the word, but also literally. These were places where people could hide from danger.

Basic meaning

So, a synagogue is a place where Jews can gather to pray, study Torah, and communicate. It is worth saying that it also has special functions.

1. Place of prayer. Of course, the synagogue is the first place where believers can turn to God in prayer. It will be interesting that for Jews it is not solitary, but public prayer that is of great importance, for which this building is perfect.
2. Studying Holy Scripture. It is also customary to study Torah in synagogues. For this purpose, there are special schools that can be located either nearby or in the same building. It is not surprising that the beit midrash (house of learning) is closely associated with the beit knesset (synagogue). In these schools, children and teenagers study Torah every day; on weekends, various lectures and teachings for adults can be held here.
3. Library. Also in synagogues there is always a hall where various religious books are collected. They can be read both in the temple itself and taken home (warning the shames - the synagogue servant) about this.
4. Public life. In addition, the synagogue is a place where community members can gather for various celebrations and celebrations. Thus, both collective and personal celebrations can be held within the walls of this temple. They can celebrate circumcision, ransoming a baby, bar mitzvah, etc. Often, a rabbinical court, beit din, sits in synagogues. Previously, temples also had guest rooms where traveling Jews could stay without any problems, and there could also be small stables for a couple of horses.

Architecture

It is worth saying that there are no special rules for how it should look Jewish synagogue. It can be magnificently rebuilt, or it can be just a room. However, it must have windows. The Talmud says that you cannot pray in a room from which you cannot see the sky. It is also desirable that there is a vestibule at the entrance, where a person can leave all his worldly thoughts and torments. An interesting fact will be that all the synagogues face Jerusalem, and in Jerusalem itself - towards. If possible, buildings should be erected on the highest mountain in the city so that they can rise above other buildings. And since this was not always possible, a pole with a star was installed on the roof of the house of prayer to make the synagogue appear higher than other buildings.

Synagogue from the inside

What does the synagogue look like from the inside? The photos suggest that there are separate places for women and men (ezrat-nashim is a separate place for women). Often, representatives of the fair sex were placed on the balcony, but if this was not possible, the prayer room was divided into two parts by a curtain or partition, which was called “mekhitsa”. This was necessary so that no one and nothing would distract men from communicating with God.

The most important place in the synagogue is the Aron HaKodesh - this is a special niche or cabinet, covered with a curtain, where Torah scrolls are collected. People's faces are turned there during prayer. It is also worth mentioning that on one side of the Aron HaKodesh there is a place for a rabbi, on the other there is a place for a lecturer. Also in synagogues there will definitely be a ner tamid, a lamp or candle, and a bimah - the place from which the holy scriptures will be read. These are, perhaps, all the nuances that are important for a synagogue. Otherwise, houses of prayer can differ from each other and be unique in their own way.

Positions

Having understood the meaning of the word “synagogue”, it is worth paying a little attention to the positions that exist at these houses of prayer. Thus, it will be important that each community independently chooses its leadership and officials.

1. Rabbi (rabbi) - spiritual leader. This is a person who knows the Torah very well and, before taking up his post, passes a very difficult exam. Today, the rabbi is also given administrative duties that he must fulfill.
2. Chazan (or shliach-zibur - community messenger) is a person who leads public prayer and thus represents people before God. This person must also be highly educated, know Hebrew, and at the same time he can perform other functions.
3. Shamash is a servant who performs many duties: he keeps order in the house of prayer, takes care of the safety of property, and monitors the schedule. Sometimes it can replace khazan.
4. Gabai (parnas) is the so-called administrative director of the community. There are often several of them. They mainly deal with financial issues and solve administrative problems.

Types of synagogues

It is also worth mentioning that over the centuries two socio-cultural communities have emerged that lead slightly different lives - Ashkenazim and Sephardim. The differences here lie in the special order of prayers and the structure of synagogues. Most modern Jews are Ashkenazi (central and northern Africa, Australia, America, etc.), their houses are furnished more in the European style, while Sephardim like to decorate their synagogues with carpets and other oriental paraphernalia. Most of the famous houses of prayer are Ashkenazi, including the synagogue in St. Petersburg.

Conducting the service

It is also important that there are differences in the order of services in the synagogue. Thus, a distinction is made between Ashkenazi Hasidim and non-Hasidim. It is interesting that the Hasidim borrowed the style of prayer from the Sephardim. Otherwise, the differences are practically invisible and insignificant. After all, in order to convert a synagogue from one to another, it is enough to simply change the prayer books. The Torah scrolls themselves remain the same for everyone. In addition, for people who do not know how to conduct rituals and various celebrations, “different” Jews will seem almost identical, since the differences lie in the smallest details, which are sometimes simply unnoticeable.

SYNAGOGE (in Greek synagogue - `meeting`; in Hebrew בֵּית כְּנֶסֶת, bet-knesset, `house of meeting`), after the destruction of the Temple - the main institution of the Jewish religion (see also Judaism), a building serving as a place of public worship and center religious life of the community.

The synagogue not only had a decisive influence on the formation of Judaism as an organized religion, but also served as the basis for the forms of public worship developed in Christianity and Islam.

Although the synagogue does not have the same degree of holiness as the Temple, the teachers of the law ascribe to it holiness in the same way as the Temple. In accordance with this, the Shulchan Aruch (OH. 151) prohibits certain actions in the synagogue - frivolous behavior, eating, drinking, gossip, sleeping, monetary transactions (with the exception of charity and ransoming prisoners), praising any person (with the exception of prominent members of the community ) and so on.; It is forbidden to take shelter in the synagogue from bad weather; You can run into the synagogue, but you should leave it in such a way that you don’t get the impression that the person is in a hurry to leave (Br. 6b); You should come to the synagogue in clean clothes. The upper floors of the synagogue must be used in such a way as not to violate the sanctity of the building. Even when the synagogue building has been reduced to ruins, the site cannot be used for nefarious purposes, such as commercial transactions.

There is no mention of synagogues and their destruction during the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, which may be because the focus of the books of Maccabees is on the Temple of Jerusalem. However, public readings of the Torah scroll (I Macc. 3:48) and the singing of psalms (ibid. 4:24) are mentioned. During excavations, ruins of synagogues were discovered in two fortresses of King Herod the Great - in Masada and in Herodion.

Naturally, in the diaspora there was a need for local institutions for the practice of worship. In 1902, in Egypt, archaeologists discovered in Shedia, about 25 km from Alexandria, a synagogue slab with an inscription stating that this synagogue was dedicated to Ptolemy III Euergetes (246–221 BC) and his wife Berenice. Obviously, the synagogue was already a traditional institution. The decree granting the Egyptian synagogue the right to grant asylum dates back to the same period. In III Macc. 7:2 already mentions the founding of a synagogue in Ptolemais during the reign of Ptolemy IV (221–204 BC).

In historical materials of the 1st century. n. e. The synagogue appears as a well-established ancient institution at the center of the religious and social life of the Jewish people, an institution that coexisted harmoniously with the Temple in Eretz Israel and was the only religious center of the Diaspora communities. Philo of Alexandria reports that the large Jewish community of Alexandria had many synagogues in different quarters of the city. The Talmud (Suk. 51b; TI., Suk. 5:1, 55a; Tosef., Suk. 4:6) reports that the Great Synagogue of Alexandria, in which representatives of various professional guilds prayed together, was so large that the voice of the hazzan was not was heard in all parts of the room, so that it had to be symbolized by raising special pennants when the parishioners were supposed to join in prayer. This synagogue was destroyed under Emperor Trajan (reigned 98–117).

Josephus mentions synagogues in Tiberias (Life 280), in Dora (Ant. 19:305;) and Caesarea (War 2:285–9); in the New Testament - in Kfar Nahum (Mark 1:21), and in the Talmud - synagogues of people from Alexandria (Tosef., Meg. 3:6; TI., Meg. 3:1,73d) and Tarsus (Meg. 26a ) in Jerusalem. Synagogues of the Tarsians also existed in Lod and Tiberias. According to TI., Meg. 3:1, at the time of the destruction of the Second Temple there were 480 synagogues in Jerusalem (Ref. 105a says there were 394 synagogues). There was a synagogue on the Temple Mount itself (Sot. 7:7-8; Yoma 7:1); the Mishnah (Sot. 7:7) gives a detailed description of the service in this synagogue on Yom Kippur: “The chazzan of the synagogue picked up the Torah scroll and handed it to the head of the synagogue, who handed it to the prefect, who handed it to the high priest; the high priest received the scroll standing and reading it standing,” etc.

Outside Eretz Yisrael, along with the aforementioned "Shaf ve-Yativ" in Ne X Arde'a and synagogues in Egypt, Philo of Alexandria reports on synagogues in Rome. Inscriptions have been discovered that mention more than a dozen synagogues in this city; in 1961, in Ostia, the remains of a 3rd century synagogue were found, built on the ruins of an older synagogue (1st century AD). New Testament indicates that synagogues existed in all Diaspora communities. Paul of Tarsus preached in many synagogues in Damascus (Acts 9:20, 22) and mentioned synagogues in all the cities he visited in Asia Minor (Acts 13:5,14; 14:1; 15:21; 17: 1,10; 18:4,7), including several synagogues in Salamis in Cyprus. Barnabas of Cyprus and John preached in the synagogues of Cyprus. There are references to ancient synagogues in the Balkans and the Aegean islands, in Syria and Phenicia, in Italy and Sicily, in Spain, in Gaul, in Pannonia (modern Hungary) and in North Africa. The synagogue in Stobi (Yugoslavia) dates back to 65 AD. e., on the island of Delos (Greece) - 2nd century. BC e.

With the destruction of the Second Temple and the cessation of religious sacrifices, the synagogue became the main and only center of Jewish religious life. Many customs and rituals practiced in the Temple were deliberately carried over into the synagogue liturgy, while others were prohibited in the synagogues precisely because they belonged to the Temple service. Prayer was seen as a kind of substitute for sacrifice, and the term avodah, which referred to sacrificial cult, was now attached to prayer. The synagogue service, the functions of the synagogues and the offices of the synagogue have undergone little change during the 2500 years of the existence of this institution.

The order of the synagogue liturgy, established in the early chapters of Tractate Berachot for daily and Sabbath worship and in Tractate Megillah (3:4) for the holidays, remained unchanged, with only minor additions made over subsequent centuries. The function of the synagogue as a center of not only worship and learning, but also a community center dates back to antiquity. To the only permanent position in the synagogue in the Talmudic period hazzan X a-knesset(minister at the [house of] meeting) added: professional hazzan (cantor, person leading the synagogue service); ba'al kria, reading a passage from the Torah (see Parashat X ha-shavoa), which was previously recited by a member of the community who was called for this; preacher and/or rabbi of the synagogue, as opposed to the rabbi of the community (this position is typical primarily for Western countries).

In the Middle Ages, the synagogue was the center of worship and the place where the rabbi gave sermons. At the same time, the role of the synagogue as a community center has increased significantly: such aspects practically did not exist Everyday life Jews who would not be reflected in synagogue life. Any parishioner who wished to voice a complaint could interrupt the synagogue service until he received a promise that his complaint would be considered; the results of trials were announced in the synagogue, as were reports of lost and found items and thefts; Some synagogues even announced the state of the market.

In Italy, a member of the community who intended to leave it was obliged to publicly declare this in the synagogue so that everyone who had claims against him could present them (this practice existed already in the Talmudic period - see Lev. R. 6 :2). Announcements were made in the synagogue with the aim of compelling members of the community to observe moral and marital virtues; in the synagogue they officially and publicly condoled with the mourners; the arrival of the groom on the Saturday preceding the wedding and on the Saturday after the wedding was accompanied by expressions of joy by the entire community. The synagogue was also the place where the judicial oath was taken on a Torah scroll, which the swearer held or touched. The most powerful social sanction was the herem, which, among other things, denied the punished the right to participate in the synagogue liturgy.

The medieval synagogue had a bet midrash and a mikveh. There were synagogues of various societies (for example, Bikkur Cholim), professional guilds (for example, carvers in Zaragoza). Some synagogues were named after their location, others after the names of donors (for example, the synagogue of the Toledano family in Guadalajara). In Spanish synagogues there were permanent family seats that were inherited. Exiles often named their synagogues after the place where they had previously lived (the Roman synagogue “Scuola Catalana”, which still exists today). In Spain, after the expulsion of the Jews, the property of the synagogues was confiscated by the crown to cover the tax debts of the Jews, and the synagogue buildings were converted into churches.

Among the other most significant synagogues in the city were the Kabbalistic synagogues "Beth El" (see Kabbalah) and "Tif'eret Israel", also called "Nisan Bek" after its founder. The oldest Karaite synagogue was built in the 10th–11th centuries. During the War of Independence (1948), 55 synagogues were destroyed by Arabs; some of them were restored after 1967 during the general restoration and modernization of the Jewish Quarter of the Old City.

During the British Mandate, the construction of synagogues was carried out only in large cities. In 1923–24 The Great Synagogue and the Sephardi Synagogue “O” were built X ate mo'ed" in Tel Aviv and "Yeshurun" in Jerusalem, and in the 1930s. - Haifa Central Synagogue. By the time the state was created, there were about 800 synagogues operating in the country. Rapid population growth required an increase in the number of synagogues in the country, and by 1970 their number reached six thousand. The construction and equipment of new synagogues is financed by the Ministry of Religious Affairs together with the Ministry of Construction (often with the participation of various foundations and the Jewish Agency). The complete interior of nine synagogues from Jewish communities destroyed by the Nazis and 28 arks from ancient Italian synagogues were delivered to Israel; they were installed in new synagogues.

The vast majority of synagogues in Israel are Orthodox; they are part of the Association of Israeli Synagogues (established in 1963). There are several Conservative and Reform synagogues in the country, the most significant of which is at Hebru Union College in Jerusalem.

Along with the interior design, Italian synagogues were characterized by a high level of decorative design of the premises and ritual utensils. Baroque arks from Italian synagogues are exhibited in a number of leading museums in the world. Some of the small Italian communities that ceased to exist donated interior decoration their synagogues to Israel so that it can be used in new Israeli synagogues. Thus, in particular, the equipment of the Cornegliano Veneto synagogue was used in the Jerusalem Italiana, and the Vittorio Veneto synagogue was completely reconstructed in a special hall in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

Many ancient synagogues in Arab countries have survived to this day. The Great Synagogue of Baghdad is described by Benjamin of Tudela: a building with an internal colonnade, with a hall opening onto a courtyard, which is characteristic of the architecture of Arab mosques. The walls were magnificently decorated with stylized inscriptions, similar to what was customary in Spanish synagogues. The famous synagogue in Fostat (see Cairo) was a Coptic basilica built in the 9th century. In Damascus there was a vaulted synagogue, the hall of which was divided into three bays by colonnades. The synagogue in Aleppo was reminiscent of the ancient mosques of Cairo - “Amr” and “Ibn Tulun”: it had a courtyard in which there was a bimah under its own roof, and the parishioners sat in covered colonnades along the perimeter of the courtyard; the ark was placed in the same way as the mihrab in mosques. The synagogue at Aleppo was the most pronounced example of Islamic influence on synagogue architecture.

In the 18th century synagogue architecture underwent a number of significant changes. During this period, the rulers of some German lands were interested in attracting Jewish traders and artisans to strengthen the local economy and provided personal patronage to Jews, sometimes promoting the construction of synagogues. Examples of such synagogues are the Heidenreuthergasse synagogue in Berlin (1714) and the synagogue in Ansbach (Bavaria, 1746). In Wörlitz (Saxony), the Duke of Anhalt-Dessau built a synagogue in his own park (1790) opposite the temple rotunda of the goddess Vesta. In England, the Great London Synagogue (1790), built during this period, was planned by the English architect J. Spiller in the classicist style. Several Gregorian-style synagogues were built in the United States (for example, the synagogue in Newport, Rhode Island (1763) and the synagogue in Charleston, South Carolina (1797).

Synagogue architecture in the 19th century. was in decline. Jewry in Western Europe and the United States after emancipation sought to create monumental synagogue buildings; the result was large and pretentious buildings that lacked architectural excellence. Since the 19th century synagogue architecture did not develop unified and original styles that would distinguish it from the architectural trends of its time. In the second half of the 19th century. architectural eclecticism was reflected in the construction of synagogues in the “Egyptian”, Greek, Roman, “Moorish”, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque and other styles, and the decorative side had no functional connection with the purpose of the building and the structure of the interior.

Among the synagogue buildings in the classic style, the following synagogues stand out: on Notre Dame Street in Paris (1819–20), on Seitengasse in Vienna (1824), in Munich (1826), the Obuda Synagogue in Budapest (1820–21), the New Synagogue in London (1838) and "Beth-Elo X them" in Charleston (1841). Napoleon I's campaign in Egypt (1798) gave rise to a fashion for the “Egyptian” style, sometimes combined with classicism, for example, in the Copenhagen synagogue (1833) and a number of synagogues in the USA. Some synagogues, mainly in Central Europe and the USA, were influenced by the Gothic style, which came into fashion in the mid-19th century. Synagogues in the pseudo-Gothic style were built in Vienna by Max Fleischer.

However, Christian associations of the Gothic style prevented its widespread adoption in synagogue building, in which the "Moorish" style spread during this period - first in Germany (synagogue in Cologne, 1861; synagogue in Oranienburgstrasse, Berlin, 1856–66) and then in others countries (Central Synagogue in London, 1870; Florentine Synagogue, 1880; Choral Synagogue in St. Petersburg, 1893). This style was imported to the United States through Jewish congregations of immigrants from Germany (Temple Emmanuel, New York, 1868; Rodef Shalom, Philadelphia, 1869–70; Plumstreet Temple, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1866 and others). By the end of the 19th century. the classicism style came back into fashion.

In Eretz Israel in the mid-19th century. two large Ashkenazi synagogues were built in Jerusalem - “Hurvat Rabbi Ye X uda Hasid", the Hasidic synagogue "Tif'eret Israel" (both in the Old City of Jerusalem) and "Beth X ha-midrash X Ha-Gadol" on Mea She'arim Street (built at the end of the 19th century, the influence of the Eastern European tradition of bet midrash is obvious in the architecture). Construction of the first of them lasted about 30 years (from the late 1830s to the late 1860s). The author of the project was the Turkish architect Assad Effendi, who was sent by the Sultan to repair buildings on the Temple Mount. It is possible that the design of the synagogue was also made by Assad Efendi by order of the Sultan.

Synagogue "Hurvat Rabbi Yeh" X uda Hasid" is a characteristic Ottoman monumental building: four arched vaults, in the center of which is a drum with windows, on which a round dome rests; the height of the hall is 24 m. The Tif'eret Israel Synagogue (construction completed in the 1870s) is a cubic building (the height of the hall is 20 m) with a dome on a high drum; the interior is designed in the style of public and religious buildings built by Europeans during the same period in Jerusalem, mainly near the Jaffa Gate. At the same time, the architecture of Tif'eret Israel is influenced by the style of ancient synagogues that were discovered in Galilee during this period.

In the moshavot (see Moshava), founded by Baron E. de Rothschild, a number of synagogues were built, which, in a reduced form, reproduced the monumental synagogue buildings erected in Europe at the end of the 19th century. These are the synagogues in Zichron Ya'akov, Rishon LeZion, Mazkeret Batya and other places. With the development of religious moshavim, a functional form of synagogue buildings developed there, in which, along with a room for prayer, there are premises for other types of religious and community activities, including ceremonies, for study, for a library, etc.

At the end of the 19th century. - early 20th century synagogue architecture began to be influenced by functionalism. The first examples of simplified design are the Anshei Ma'ariv synagogue in Chicago (1890–91), the synagogues in Essen (1913) and Zurich (1923–24). Among the most interesting examples of the functionalist style are the Hietzing Synagogue, Vienna (1924), the Liberal Synagogue in Hamburg (1931), the Jeshurun ​​Synagogue in Jerusalem (1934–35) and the Dollys Hill Synagogue in London (1937).

From synagogues built in the second half of the 20th century. in modernist style, noteworthy are the pyramidal Beth Shalom in Philadelphia (1954), the synagogue in Strasbourg (1958), the synagogue at the Bernard Lyons community center in Leeds (1963), the Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia (1968) and the Great Synagogue in Jerusalem. The combination of modern architectural forms with Jewish symbolism (buildings that look like Magen David, the Tablets of the Covenant, etc.) is characteristic of many synagogues in Israel built in the 1980s, especially in new settlements in Judea and Samaria.

KEE, volume: 7.
Col.: 830–849.
Published: 1994.

In the synagogue they pray, study, the synagogue serves as a gathering place for the community, and they study in the synagogue. The synagogue is also a house of prayer, although a synagogue is not needed for general prayer.

In Hebrew, synagogue is “Bet Knesset” (Meeting House).

"Knesset" means "assembly". The term "Beth Knesset" fully reflects the activities that are carried out in the synagogue today. Jews here pray, read the Torah, study, hold meetings and holidays. In this regard, the synagogue is liberal, opening its doors to a wide variety of activities.

And before the introduction of synagogues into the life of Jews, they gathered, guided by a completely understandable sense of community. Already in those days (1st century BC) a tradition had developed according to which they were engaged not only in religious matters, but also in other very diverse activities, in which they were always visible Jewish customs. It can be assumed that some rooms were used for meetings; they did not have the sacredness that characterizes the synagogue. The Jews prayed, read the Torah, and discussed social problems.

At the beginning of the first millennium, historians mention systematic readings on Saturdays as a tradition. The synagogue as a place for reading the Holy Scriptures is also mentioned in the New Testament, where the synagogue is defined as a place for prayer. After the destruction of the Second Temple, the need to gather somewhere became so urgent that we had to think about a special building for this purpose. Naturally, the significance and role of the synagogue increases from this moment on.

There must be two mandatory items in a synagogue: cov-

a tray for Torah scrolls and a table at which the Torah is read. Above, when getting acquainted with the Pentateuch, we talked about how the tabernacle was structured and what was in the ark. These are two stone tablets, tablets, they were kept in a box (ark) covered with gold. After the destruction of the First Temple, the ark disappeared. Later, the ark was an ordinary chest, and in the Middle Ages it was already a cabinet mounted on the eastern wall of the synagogue. The closet houses Torah scrolls, which are the center of attention in the synagogue. Opposite the ark hangs a curtain.

In some synagogues, above the ark there are two tablets on which the first two words indicate the Ten Commandments. The tablets may contain other texts.

Today, some synagogues use electric lights, while others use traditional oil lamps. In synagogues, the menorah (seven-branched or nine-branched) stands to the right of the ark.

The obligatory place of the synagogue is the “bima” (platform). The Torah is read on it. This platform is usually located in the center, but it can be placed on any side.

In Orthodox synagogues, women and men sit separately, in accordance with the Talmud's requirement that men should not be distracted from prayer.

Services in the synagogue are held daily in the evening, morning and afternoon. Orthodox and some other Jews prefer to say individual prayers when there are not enough people in the synagogue for a general service.

On holidays, reading is the main activity and is accompanied by a procession ceremony around the synagogue.

On Saturdays, during the morning service, a passage from the Torah is read.

The length of reading varies from synagogue to synagogue. Orthodox communities read several chapters each week, and the entire Torah over the course of a year. Others spread out their Torah reading over three years. Both have their own reasons and arguments for doing this and not otherwise.

Reformists consider some texts unnecessary for public readings and do not read them. However, in all congregations the liturgical cycle ends on the Feast of the Law; it is on this day that the last part of Deuteronomy and the first book of Genesis are read.

On Saturdays and holidays, as well as during fasts and during the daytime service on the Day of Atonement, the reading of the Torah is supplemented by the reading of the books of the Prophets.

During synagogue services, when the doors of the ark are opened and the Torah scroll is ceremoniously taken out, a procession carries the scroll to the platform. Those gathered lean forward to touch the scroll with the tassels of their prayer shawls.

It should be noted that this is done with reverence. Everything connected with the Torah scroll is perceived solemnly and with a deep feeling of love.

A Torah scroll is a parchment scroll containing the text of the Pentateuch. The text is copied onto parchment by hand using special ink. As in ancient times, this work is performed by professional scribes.

The Torah scrolls are rolled up and the rollers (two) are connected together. The scrolls are wrapped in a velvet robe.

The scrolls are not only carefully preserved, but also decorated. Bells are attached to the silver jewelry, which ring when the scroll is carried to and from the site. After the reading, the procession moves around the believers. On the site itself, the scroll is installed so that everyone can see it. The scroll is placed horizontally; the reader does not touch the Torah text with his hand, but helps himself with a silver or copper pointer.

The Torah (and Prophets) is recited in Hebrew in the synagogue. Read by a specially trained person special occasion(Saturday before a wedding or the end of mourning for a close relative) can be read by one of the believers.

In an Orthodox synagogue, the service lasts a long time; believers take turns coming out onto the platform to read, offer prayers, and testify. In a Reform synagogue, the scroll is read by one person, and not in a recitative manner, but simply reads. The Hebrew text is followed by a translation into the native language. In Reform synagogues they read in native language, and only one blessing is recited in Hebrew.

As the Bible says (Chronicles 25), Solomon's Temple had singers, musicians and musical instruments. After the destruction of the Temple, the situation changed and restrictions had to be introduced.

Work in the synagogue is carried out by a chazan - a paid employee. He is taking a course of study, studying the Bible, Talmud and prayer book. Chazan participates in pastoral work and provides religious leadership in the synagogue. It is he who is most often entrusted with the responsibility of leading the community.

And the main religious leader in Judaism and the second paid employee of the synagogue is the rabbi. The difference between the two is this: if the Khazan must be an expert in everything that

concerns the Torah, the rabbi must be an expert in all matters related to it. So central place The Torah makes the central figure of the rabbi. The title "rabbi" (teacher) belonged to the teachers of the Mishnah.

The respect and authority traditionally vested in a rabbi stemmed from his knowledge of the Torah and his ability to make practical decisions. In Judaism, spiritual leadership is based on a deep knowledge of the Torah, for without the Torah, Judaism does not exist.

A rabbi is not an interpreter of the Bible, he is trained to lead a community in which the Torah is read and studied, he helps Jews live by it.

Judaism has different views on preaching. In relation to the rabbi, it can be said that if anyone is capable of conducting frank conversations with believers, it is he.

Many Reform rabbis undergo courses in psychotherapy and other sciences that help establish contact with a person and provide assistance to him. In solving ethical and ritual problems, the rabbi is considered a subtle specialist.

Serving on the synagogue council is also the responsibility of the rabbi, although this is practiced in a Reform synagogue. An Orthodox rabbi is generally exempt from performing these duties.

The ordination of a rabbi, through which he gains power and authority, occurs in college after graduation.

There is no centralized control over the rabbi; he himself decides which part of the service should be performed in Hebrew, and he also makes decisions on the application of certain customs.

Children