According to the Sacred Law, when the head of the family and the owner of the house had grandchildren and his head turned gray, he had to become a hermit. A sharp change in life and a difficult path to salvation awaited him - the life of a hermit was fraught with many difficulties, suffering and deprivation. The fact that the Sacred Law gave a special place to asceticism and hermitage speaks of how successfully the Brahmins were able to master and introduce into the life of society ideas that arose even before the appearance of the Aryans. Perhaps ascetics more often became not at the stage of life that was prescribed by the Sacred Law, but earlier. Sometimes hermits lived alone in the depths of dense forests, engaging in self-torture in order to pacify the flesh and thus free the spirit and provide spiritual development and perfection. Others settled on the outskirts of towns and villages, sitting around burning fires even in the most intense heat, lying on a bed of nails, hanging themselves upside down for long periods of time, or holding their arms above their heads until their muscles completely atrophied.

Hermit in front of his home

It happened that they lived together in huts under the guidance of a mentor (guru), some chose the path of wanderers, collecting alms in special bowls and talking about their faith to those who were ready to listen to them. They were treated with great respect. Ascetics were believed to have supernatural powers. Ascetics who achieved perfection could look into the past, deeply understand the present and foresee the future. It was believed that they were often visited by gods who specifically came to earth to talk with hermits, that an ascetic could destroy entire cities by sending famine, disease or enemies to them, and also protect the city from these misfortunes. In addition, he was completely freed from any carnal bonds and bodily desires. His knowledge of the universe was so deep and comprehensive that he could not express it in words, although some sects of ascetics tried to do so. It was these attempts that became the basis of that mystical and apparently supernatural doctrine which had a profound influence on the development of religious views in India.

The life of an ascetic was thus very tough and harsh. As a reward he received bliss. Of course, not all ascetics were sincere; there were also deceivers among them, but such, of course, were a minority. The hermit could be recognized by his tangled hair, emaciated appearance, and skin stretching over protruding bones. If he was wearing any clothes, they were rags. If he was a wanderer, then over his shoulder hung a vessel for collecting alms, a small jug for water, and other items. During the rainy season, ascetics were buried in forests or mountain caves.

It is believed that Buddhists began to create monasteries in an attempt to use the institution of asceticism and streamline it. But no matter how you explain the reason, the construction of monasteries formed a certain monastic way of life that spread throughout society. By the time of Ashoka's reign, the territory of India was covered with viharashas, ​​which were both temples and monasteries. Thus, there was some streamlining of asceticism and its integration into the fabric public life.

Life in the desert; in the background - small mortar

Some monasteries were under the patronage of kings and became real centers of education. We have already mentioned one of them, Nalanda in Bihar. It was created during the reign of the Guptas, although the center of monastic life probably existed here earlier. Other monasteries were small in size and practically functioned only during the rainy seasons, when people found refuge in them. The rest of the time, the monks usually made pilgrimages to sacred Buddhist sites. In ancient times, monasteries were a group of small huts standing around an open area. This simple type of development formed the basis of the traditional layout. Small buildings where the monks lived and prayed were located on three sides around the courtyard. There was a veranda in the center. The buildings were built mainly from wood, sometimes they were two-story, had a cylindrical roof and horse-shoe-shaped gables. The entrance was decorated with wooden carvings, and there was also a balcony from which one could watch the processions passing below.

Between the 3rd century. BC e. and II century. n. e., and also three hundred years later, when monastic life was being revived, in Western India monasteries, like temples, were carved into the rocks. In a certain sense, this was a return to the ancient tradition, when hermits lived in natural rock caves. The difference was that the monasteries, carved into the rocks, had not only religious significance, but also represented an example of technical and architectural perfection. A typical rock monastery of ancient times consisted of a large central room, accessible from a veranda or portico located in the open air. Outside the main hall there were square dwellings-cells for the monks.

The architecture of cave temples amazingly copied the architecture of traditional wooden buildings with all the joints and fastenings that were reproduced in stone. Wood was used for decoration both inside and outside the temple.

In Eastern India around the 5th century. They built monasteries from bricks. Such structures are found in the homeland of the Buddha, where there are many sacred places associated with different episodes of his life, for example, Deer Park in Sarnath, where he achieved enlightenment, or Kushinagar, where he died and achieved nirvana. Monasteries were usually built on a high plinth made of hard molded brick, which was decorated with stucco.

Some Buddhist communities numbered hundreds, sometimes thousands, of people. They included monks and novices, servants and slaves, as well as pilgrims. The monastery was built according to old tradition, in the center there was a kind of veranda, and around it there were separate cells-dwellings. In the courtyard there was a stupa, symbolizing a hill under which the relics of Buddha or another saint were buried, or a temple.

The furnishings of each cell consisted of a simple bed like a country one, a chair with a backrest, a spittoon, several mats and cotton pillows. Everything, including bowls and utensils, was extremely modest, without any patterns. Here, nearby, there were chapels, each with an image of Buddha.

A large common hall, sometimes simply huge, illuminated by lamps located in rock niches, was used once a month for common prayers. In the same hall, collective ceremonies took place, in which all the inhabitants of the monastery took part, from initiation into monks to expulsion from the monastery of those who violated the monastery charter. Nearby, and sometimes in the same building, there were storage rooms and pantries, and beyond, next to a well or water well, there was a kitchen. The monastery also had a large artificial pond for bathing, as well as latrines and a sewerage system. Larger and richer monasteries had a bathhouse with a steam room. The bathhouse was a two-story building with a basement. The rooms were covered with animal skins and plastered. In the front room there were large vats of water, in the middle of the next room there was a fire, and stone benches along the walls. The visitor steamed in the steam room, often plunged into warm water, and then dived into a pool of cold water located in the next room. The outside of monastery buildings was often painted with rich patterns. Inside one could find sculpted bas-reliefs or wall paintings, as well as gilded plaster. Wood was used for columns, doors and balconies. The rock monasteries were also decorated with frescoes and sculpture, some of which have survived to this day; the most famous of them is rock temple in the Ajanta caves. It shows how luxurious and at the same time powerful they were Buddhist centers and what important social role they played. On the walls were depicted various Buddhist scenes, which the monks showed to pilgrims, outlining their teachings. During the rainy season, which lasted from June to October, the monasteries were full of monks studying sacred texts, praying and meditating. Some of them performed various administrative functions, others looked after gardens and storerooms, others were tailors and dyers or were responsible for provisions. Theoretically senior in Buddhist monastery did not have. The novice was assigned to one or another monk, who helped him acquire knowledge and learn prayers and whom he treated with great respect. However, the monastery gathered people who worshiped and obeyed only Buddha and his teachings. There was no supreme administrative power, controlled the monasteries, so life and work in the monasteries proceeded differently, and not according to uniform approved rules. The chief monk, or abbot, was elected by all the monks. A committee of the oldest people led the monastic life; it was they who made the decision about admission to the monastery or excommunication from it. The most important issues of monastic life were decided at a general meeting; there was a clear procedure for holding such meetings.

Three sacred symbols (they symbolize the Buddha, his teachings, and the rules and commandments for monks)

There were few restrictions for those wishing to join Buddhist monasteries; there was no discrimination based on class status, although slaves, debtors, soldiers and those who, for some reason, were in a subordinate position and had to obtain permission from the superior were not allowed into the community. Novices were accepted from the age of eight; the minimum probationary period to become a full-fledged monk was twenty years. The reception ritual was very simple: the candidate dressed in orange or yellow clothes, had his head shaved, and said the Three Sacred Phrases: “I surrender myself to the Buddha. I give myself to his teaching. I devote myself to the monastic order.” He was also required to keep the Ten Commandments.

1. Do not harm any living beings

2. You cannot take what is not given.

3. You cannot commit evil acts caused by passions.

4. You cannot bear false witness and lie.

5. You can't drink alcohol.

6. You can't eat after noon.

7. You cannot dance, sing, perform music or participate in theatrical performances, or be present at them.

8. You cannot use garlands of flowers, cosmetics, incense or jewelry.

9. You cannot sleep on a high bed.

10. You cannot accept gold and silver.

The Ten Commandments were not a vow, but rather an aspiration. If a monk believed that he could not cope and would not be able to live in accordance with them, he had the right to calmly leave the monastery. True, lay Buddhists generally treated a monk who failed to follow the Ten Commandments with contempt. Sometimes these commandments had to be followed for a certain period, and sometimes not a very long one. Several months spent in a Buddhist monastery were good preparation for ordinary life. This practice is still common in some countries, such as Burma.

The first commandment did not mean that all monks were vegetarians. A monk could eat meat if the animal was not specifically killed for this purpose. The third commandment was practically a vow of celibacy. The sixth commandment was not difficult to fulfill, and in places with a cool climate it was allowed to eat in the evening, although it was emphasized that this was done for medicinal purposes. The ban on music and dancing did not mean their abandonment during grand ceremonies. The tenth commandment, which actually meant a ban on material acquisitions and personal property, was not as strict as it might seem. According to the letter of the law, the monk had the right to have three clothes, a belt, a begging bowl, a razor, a needle and a piece of cloth through which he poured drinking water in order not to harm the organisms in the water.

Often a monk had large property, but this was not forbidden if he emphasized that he considered it not his property, but the property of the monastery, and he was simply using it. Every morning the monks were obliged to beg for food and bring to the monastery what they were given. The richer monasteries abandoned this practice; if they followed it, it was only symbolically.

The daily life of the monks was spent studying sacred texts, meditation, prayer and performance of religious rituals. They had to clean their cells and other monastic premises. The older ones taught the novices. One of the exercises to strengthen the spirit was that the monk had to sit cross-legged and think only about the four main values: love, compassion, joy and peace. In another case, the monk had to think and imagine all the evil that exists in material world. Those who reached a higher level indulged in more complex types of meditation.

If an unfamiliar monk came to the monastery, a group of inhabitants of the monastery would meet him and carry his belongings. He was taken to a special room where they brought water to wash his feet and oil to rub in. If he came after lunch, he was served a sweetened drink. After resting, the newcomer was asked how long he had been in obedience, and then he was provided with a cell, the location of which depended on the length of the period of his obedience. After this, he could take part in general monastery life. In ancient times there were also Buddhist nuns. Very strict restrictions and regulations were provided for them in order to avoid reproaches for non-compliance with moral standards, although religious opponents still accused them of this. The nuns wore the same clothes as the monks, their heads were shaved, and their daily routine was the same as that of the male monks.

As the dry season approached, the monks prepared to leave the monastery to make pilgrimages to holy places or to travel and preach. At a special festive ceremony, they presented gifts to the monastery, participated in religious processions and, after prayer and meditation, left the monastery and went in different directions, visiting a variety of areas and territories, sometimes covering vast distances in order to spread the teachings of the Buddha.

In large monasteries, which were also centers of education, there was always a permanent staff of people who were engaged in teaching. The great Buddhist university in Nalanda was visited by many travelers and pilgrims, including from China. In the first half of the 7th century. he was visited by the already mentioned Xuan Jiang. From the description he compiled, it is known that the monastery had hundreds of buildings, many with special towers for astronomical observations, located so high that they seemed to touch the clouds. The outside of these towers was decorated with various images. The monastery had many pools and ponds with blue lotus flowers. The mango trees cast thick shade in the garden; Flowers and bushes grew everywhere. One of the Chinese travelers mentions a tower almost seventy meters high and a 25-meter copper statue that stood in a huge six-story building; However, it should be borne in mind that Chinese travelers tended to exaggerate somewhat. However, from the descriptions it can be judged that the university in Nalanda at that time flourished and enjoyed enormous prestige and influence. Memories remain of sparkling metal roofs with gilded and brightly colored tiles, of building pillars decorated with exquisite carvings and inlays, of red semiprecious stones structures that supported the ceilings, which in turn were painted with all the colors of the rainbow. All this decoration was made possible thanks to the help of residents of hundreds of villages. The students were fed and clothed for free. The lands belonging to the monastery were cultivated by special workers, sometimes the students themselves. As Xuan Jiang notes, to enter the university one had to pass a very difficult oral exam, and 80% of applicants could not do this. The university had about a hundred departments, students discussed a variety of issues, both with teachers and among themselves. In addition to training, light physical exercise was also provided, consisting of walks along the quiet, shady paths of the monastery garden.

The students' workday was supervised by a monastery employee, who gave them various tasks for physical labor on the territory of the monastery. Students resolved all issues related to discipline independently. The day began at dawn, and time could be navigated by the beats of the drum. The monastery also had a water clock. They were a metal vat of water in which a copper mug floated. There was a small hole punched in the bottom of the mug. Every 45 minutes the mug filled with water and hit the bottom of the vat. Time was measured from dawn, and at the first segment, that is, at 6.45 in the morning, the beat of the drum sounded. At 7.30 there were two strikes, at 8.15 three. At 9 o'clock in the morning there were four blows, and then - one signal from a horn made of reeds and a drumbeat. Then the countdown continued, and every 45 minutes, except noon, was marked by four drum beats, followed by the sound of a bugle and two more drum beats. The day ended at 6 p.m. when the sun set, but 45-minute segments continued to be recorded throughout the night.

The educational process took 8 hours a day and consisted of lessons and discussions. In some cases, the teacher could deliberately provoke a discussion in order to check how well the material was learned. If during a dispute one of the participants particularly distinguished himself, he was put on an elephant and solemnly carried through the main gate of the monastery. If someone did not satisfy the listeners with the logic of his reasoning or insulted them using unacceptable expressions, then he could easily be thrown with mud or pushed into a ditch. Studying in Nalanda was considered very prestigious, and many tried to show that they studied there. Therefore, those who actually graduated from this educational institution received documents with a special clay seal to avoid forgery.

Buddha asking for food

It was not only Buddhism that supported and stimulated the development of monasticism. The founder of Jainism, Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, believed (and so do his supporters now) that a layman is not capable of achieving complete salvation; this can only be achieved by long fasting, self-restraint, meditation and prayer. The life of a Jain monk was tough and very strict. During initiation into monks, the head was not shaved, but the hair was pulled out by the roots. The food that the monks asked for as alms had to be very modest and fasting frequent. The Jain monk took five vows: not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to have an intimate life and not to have property. These vows were observed in the strictest manner. Eating meat was strictly prohibited. It was impossible to take the life of anyone, not even insects. Jain monks carried a feather with them to carefully remove insects from their path and avoid accidentally stepping on them. They also wore special bandages over their mouths to prevent them from accidentally inhaling live insects. Like the Buddhists, they poured drinking water through a piece of cloth, but in a number of things they went much further. A Jain layman had no right to engage in agriculture because it meant the destruction of life on earth. No other Indian religion has adhered to the principle of non-violence (ahimasha) in such extreme forms as the Jains did. Laymen were regarded as Jain novices and were expected to live in monasteries as monks for a certain period of time, but were allowed to avoid strict ascetic restrictions.

22 September 2015, 10:58

When I first saw him, he was sitting on a dirty leopard skin spread on the damp ground. Smoky ash was outlined around. Through the thick rings of smoke from the hemp chillum, the features of a middle-aged man were barely visible...

His face was covered with a thick beard, generously smeared with ash, his pitch-black eyes seemed frozen in a stubborn, staring position, his hair, matted into dreadlocks, was decorated with a black turban and bright beads. The teeth were darkened from severe austerity and overgrown with a thick layer of coal. His dark robe resembled the attire of sorcerers, and a sharpened bamboo pole was pointed menacingly at my face. He was not barefoot; there were pieces of wood nearby that imitated simple slippers. The forehead was decorated with drawings incomprehensible to mere mortals, strange amulets and a ring with a precious stone harmoniously completed the mystical image that appeared right in front of me on the banks of the sacred Ganges.

He sat on the ground near the local crematorium, peacefully smoked weed, getting rid of frozen concepts, and was in some other dimension. I walked closer and he motioned for me to sit next to him. In a dark crevice, behind a dilapidated building that you couldn’t see from the path, sat a whole company of ascetics. They all looked alike, had no clothes or were wrapped in identical black robes. The ascetics huddled together and apparently performed a sacred ritual around a burning fire, smoking a chillum with hashish in a circle. They were all Saivites. It is believed that smoking a pipe promotes the acquisition of higher wisdom, and spirits are nourished by the soft, smoky substance. The remaining ashes are smeared on the forehead or eaten, demonstrating the highest devotion to Shiva.

Later I found out that these guys were real Aghori - Hindu sadhus practicing an extreme form of asceticism. Many Hindus shun Aghori because they associate with spirits, live in cemeteries and cremation grounds, and perform rituals that are quite harsh and strange for the average person. It is believed that asceticism is the renunciation of sleep, food and sensual pleasures, as well as pure vision God in all its manifestations, even the most disgusting - this is also part of the Universe, helps the ascetic to find spiritual enlightenment.

Sadhus leave worldly life, abandon their families and possessions, devoting themselves to spirituality. By achieving unity with God, the Absolute, the Universe, the mystic understands the true nature of things and gets rid of fear and disgust. What frightens ordinary people cannot frighten an Aghori because he understands the nature of human fear. By practicing yoga and meditation, performing rituals that seem strange at first glance, the sadhu develops inner peace and becomes fearless. Every Aghori strives to get rid of his aversion to the ugly and dirty. This is helped by special meditation aimed at neutralizing negative emotions. Aghori wait for the funeral pyres to die down to take the skull or the corpse itself.

Sadhus are simply ascetics, yogis, saints who live in ashrams, temples, forests and caves. Others lead a wandering life, making pilgrimages. Not all of them are Aghori and worship Shiva, some especially worship Vishnu. And most of them do not understand the cannibal sect at all. I met an Aghori in Varanasi, the oldest city on earth. This sacred city has long been considered a place of pilgrimage, where the elderly and sick come to die. Here you begin to think about the eternal, about the illusory nature of the world, about the purpose of man and the meaning of our existence. Hindus flock from all over the country to the banks of the Ganges because they believe that if you die in the holy city, you have the opportunity to go to heaven, and not be reborn again and again in new bodies. From early morning the Ganga is bustling, the ghats are crowded with people. The fires at the Manikarnika ghat never go out. This atmosphere is an ideal place for an Aghori.

Some sadhus are so severe that they keep their arm raised and do not lower it until it becomes stiff, stand on one leg for years using a suspension system, fast, walk naked, do not cut their hair, which accumulates super strength and energy. Enlightened sadhus are called living gods on earth.

“In India, these changes were very clearly reflected in the literary work of the early Vedic period, in the work that resulted in the Upanishads.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the center of cultural and social life in India moved from the western regions to the region of the middle reaches of the Ganges, the most typical part of the country. This movement placed the Aryans in different natural, social and economic conditions.

In a tropical climate, everything flourishes and dies quickly. Here nature is as generous and beautiful as it is dangerous and insidious. The entire world around us is changing and is in constant motion. Large associations of tribes are formed, led by a core of rulers that is constantly strengthening its power. Cities arise, growing rich thanks to a small but powerful layer of merchants, and later moneylenders. Numerous artisans flock here; Using new methods, they create ever more advanced products. A type of urban civilization is developing, which was destined to become the bearer of progress and wealth, education and licentiousness.

However, it is precisely at this significant time that people appear who do not want to accept a new way of life. Their faith experienced one of the most serious crises in the history of Indian society. Old ideas about gods and the omnipotence of sacrifice are fading into oblivion. However, residents of the eastern regions have never been adherents of this faith, the dominance brahmins it has not taken deep roots here. Different blood flowed in the veins of the inhabitants of these lands; unique ideas about amazing things arose in their thoughts. magical powers, the possession of which can only be achieved through severe ascetic practice.

From the eastern regions came many different ascetics who strove to achieve higher goals than those set by the traditional Brahmanical religion based on sacrifice. In the intellectual development of India during the Upanishad period, the main role was played not by brahmans and priests, but by people who renounced the world with its passions and pleasures.

Hermits settled in dense jungle thickets, in forests and groves remote from cities, and in clearings for burning corpses. They tormented themselves with hunger, thirst, cold, dampness, subjected their withered bodies to terrible physical torture: they roasted in the scorching tropical sun, sat in the middle of burning fires, stretched out on a bed covered with thorns or studded with spear points, took an unnatural position and remained in it until until individual parts of their body dried out and atrophied.

Some hermits with specially braided hair (unlike the Brahmins, they wore a bun) moved from place to place and preached to everyone their path to achieving the highest ideal of life. They talked about the things and phenomena of this world and opposed those who denied the idea of ​​an afterlife. All of them were driven by an unquenchable thirst to know the highest truth. Knowledge was for them main goal, they considered him the greatest force in the universe. Various sciences bloom and wither like flowers during the rainy season.

The number of hermits and wandering ascetics grew more and more; Brahmin sages also joined them. With shaved heads and bamboo sticks in hand, they wandered from one place to another, sleeping on the bare ground, covering their bodies with a small piece of cloth, an antelope skin, or just grass. We know negligibly little about their often very contradictory views, and mainly from the books of their opponents.

The only monument of this period that has reached us intact is Upanishads. We almost do not know the place and time of their origin. Initially they were included in the texts Brahman, explaining the deep, symbolic significance and meaning of the Vedic sacrifices. Then the most secret parts of these texts, containing secret knowledge, separated from the Brahmins and began to be considered as independent. The rejection of parts that later became Upanishads was often carried out ill-considered: sometimes the most speculative sections were singled out philosophical sciences, sometimes sections with detailed explanations about rituals. This, of course, significantly complicated the research of Upanishad materials. It was necessary to carry out a careful selection - only the experienced eye of a scientist could distinguish gems from the breed. No wonder one famous researcher of the past called our source “a heap of garbage with pieces of gold.”

During the period when the texts Upanishads purchased modern look, their teaching became the property of the brahmanas. At first, everything was rather the opposite: sages-hermits, wandering ascetics, members of powerful clans and tribal commanders played an important role in their development .

Women and representatives of the lower classes took part in the philosophical discussion. Only the final edition can be considered to belong to Brahman thinkers who lived alone in a village or forest with families, herds of cattle, surrounded by their closest disciples. It has already been noted that the Upanishad system is the fruit of thought different eras and schools. Their concepts are very heterogeneous both in content and value. Therefore, we will mention only the most important of them, those that were of fundamental importance for the development of Hindu religion and philosophy in the subsequent period. We will not dwell on the countless details of sacrificial mysticism and symbolism, as well as on unsuccessful attempts to explain the mysterious phenomena of this world, attempts that were later abandoned and forgotten as fruitless.

The central problem that occupied thinkers Upanishads, there was a problem of life and death, the question of what is the bearer of life. This was later joined by the problem associated with the mystery of sleep, which has long been considered a phenomenon akin to death. Individual sages and their schools answered these questions differently. Some looked for the carrier of life in water, others - in the wind, even more often in breath (prana), others - in fire, etc. Previous ideas were re-evaluated, new ones made their way: a complex of all kinds of knowledge was united by one goal - to designate in the language of modernity the forces that govern the world and human life.

Of all the then teachings about the “carrier,” the impression of greatest integrity is left by the ancient concept, the creators of which looked for it in water. They started from an awareness of the life-giving power of water, the most important factor in the tropical economy. Falling in mighty showers onto the parched earth, water awakens plants, the main food of man. With food, the latter receives precious moisture, which preserves his life and encourages him to procreate. When a person dies and his body is burned, moisture comes out of him in the form of smoke and again rises into the sky. The whole process is repeated. Life-giving moisture originates on the moon and returns there again. This explained the movement of the monthly phases and the entire water cycle. Associated with similar views the most important idea about the journey of the soul, the origins of this idea can be traced in the texts Brahman. It is rooted in ancient ideas that after death people live in the world (sphere) of their ancestors, where the first man reigns.

Later, the underworld of Yama becomes the abode of the dead. If, however, everything worldly is condemned to destruction, is not the afterlife also temporary? The ancient sages answered this question in the affirmative: life even in the next world has an end, a person will have to return to this world again. Thus, in principle, the foundation was laid for the doctrine of the cycle of life, developed in detail in the subsequent period of development of Hinduism. One of the early Upanishads, for example, tells how the souls of the dead pass from the kingdom of Yama, where they remained in bliss for a month, into the void, then into the atmosphere and finally return to earth in the form of rain.

I wonder what about the journey of souls brahmins first reported by the Panchala king, a member of the Kshatriya warrior caste. Later, this teaching was developed and spread, of course, by priests, brahmans, who gave it a symbolic character: - individual phases of the cycle were identified with certain features and stages of sacrifices, in which sacrificial fire plays the most important role. The very language of the texts, strict and solemn, is imbued with ritual symbolism and mysticism. It is not surprising that this teaching occupied a large place in Vedanta philosophy. The idea of ​​five stages of the water cycle, then associated with five sacrificial fires, led to the emergence of the “teaching of the five fires,” in which the concept of “two paths” was especially significant - the “path of the fathers” and the “path of the gods.” This teaching provided a valuable basis for the further development of Vedanta philosophy.

Many have seen the carriers of life in breathing (prana): a person lives as long as he breathes. In a number of episodes, various life forces appear as characters speaking and arguing with each other, fighting for primacy and dominance.

Ivo Fischer, From Brahmanism to Hinduism, in Sat.: Gods, Brahmans, People. Four thousand years of Hinduism, M., “Science”, 1969, p. 44-48.

(sensual pleasures), artha (material development) and even dharma (duty).

A sadhu is completely dedicated to achieving moksha (liberation) through meditation and knowledge of God. Sadhus often wear ocher robes, which symbolize renunciation.

Sadhus (ascetics, sannyasis, yogis)

The words come from the Sanskrit root sādh IAST , which means “to achieve a goal,” “to make straight,” or “to exert power over something.” The same root is used in the word sadhana ( sadhana IAST ), which means "spiritual practice".

Usually sadhus are monks who have renounced the world and given up material pleasures. They live in caves, forests or temples all over India.

Simple people often called sadhu woman. In many Indian languages, the word woman means father or uncle. Sometimes the respectful suffix is ​​added to baba ji- babaji.

Hinduism

Hinduism includes many different and often quite contradictory beliefs. It is based, it would seem, on a sublime philosophy, but continues to coexist with a mass of primitive superstitions. Thus, the idea of ​​Hinduism about non-harm to all living things (ahimsa) is contradicted by bloody sacrifices to the goddess Kali.

Hinduism is based on the religion of the Indo-Aryan tribe. They appeared in the Indus River valley and from there spread throughout India. Over time, the Indo-Aryan religion began to include local cults. The Indo-Aryans recorded four collections of sacred hymns, to which the priests compiled ritual commentaries. Soon both the commentaries and the priests themselves began to be called “brahmins.” Later, the Upanishads were added to the sacred hymns or Vedas and Brahmins. They revealed “secret knowledge” by talking about liberation.

The history of Hinduism is divided into three stages. The first stage is known as Vedism, or the religion of the Indo-Aryans. The second stage is Brahmanism, the stage of development of Vedism by Brahmans, filling it with ritual and mystical philosophy. The last stage involves the merging of Brahmanism and sects. Vedism was based on polytheism. It was preserved in Brahmanism, but Brahman began to emerge clearly in it - single principle. In modern Hinduism, the concept of “Brahman” has not disappeared, but along with it a personal deity, Ishvara, has appeared. However, in the caste ladder, Ishvara ranks below Brahman. Brahman is impersonal, and Ishvara is only its manifestation, which is revealed to those who are not able to achieve Brahman.

Hinduism does not consider man to be the “crown of creation.” Man is superior to the animal world, but inferior to spirits and deities. With the death of a person, only his bodily shell dies, and the soul (jiva) remains to live in another person, either falls to a lower level in the animal world, or ascends to a higher level. The fate of the soul is determined by a person's karma, the sum of his good and bad deeds. Hindus call this cycle samsara. Even if the whole world perishes, human souls will move into a potential state in order to then appear in a new world.

Hindu society

Hindu society is divided into four classes: the Brahmin class, occupying highest level, the class of Kshatriyas (warriors), standing one step lower, the class of Vaishyas, including farmers and traders, and the class of Shudras (servants), occupying a lower level. All these castes try to separate themselves from each other through intra-caste marriages or the transmission of professions by inheritance. Brahmins care most about their own ritual purity, to the point that they prepare food and eat separately. Violation of the laws of caste purity is punishable by expulsion from Hindu society.

The highest goal of a Hindu's life is liberation. Despite the fact that the human soul is constantly reborn, it can still be freed. However, this can only be achieved by Brahman, or rather, only by his soul, or jiva.

Ordinary lay people can also hope for best birth. Hindus distinguish four stages human life, following which you can achieve liberation. A layman can begin by studying the sacred texts. A person at this stage is called a brahmacharin. A layman in the second stage - grihastha - must fulfill his caste duty. The third stage for Hindus means leaving home and family and beginning the life of a hermit. The life of a hermit helps prepare for eternal life. And finally, at the last stage, a person becomes a sannyasin - a wandering ascetic who has renounced the world in order to concentrate on liberation.

According to the ancient rule, a Brahmin, when he saw the face of his grandson, i.e. when the continuation of his family is ensured, he must renounce the position of a householder and live in the forest to save his soul. Towards the end of his life he switches to the last path earthly path and turns into a “sanyasi”, i.e. homeless wanderer And now there are devout Brahmins who live by this rule. In general, rejection of the comforts of life, seclusion and harsh treatment of one’s body, even to the point of self-torture, are considered the highest expression of religious feeling. The example of Buddha shows that one can take this path even in youth. And at present India is full of decrepit old men and strong young men devoting themselves to religious life. For the vast majority of these five million mendicant people, religion is only an excuse for unpunished parasitism and begging. So strong is the respect of the people of India for all those who have renounced this world that the request of a beggar is never refused. Obeying the sectarian and caste spirit of their people, Indian hermits form groups or orders and even castes. The usual names for these professional pilgrims are: “bairagi”, i.e. free from earthly attachments, “yoga”, i.e. striving for higher knowledge, or “gosayn”, i.e. mastered his senses. Most spend their lives in continuous transitions from one shrine to another, and many of them manage to walk around numerous places of worship several times. Their property and clothing are extremely limited, some simply go naked, or, as the Hindus poetically put it, “dress in the four countries of the world.” Some sew themselves a dress from various discarded scraps. Many people wear a yellow shirt. All are equipped with a bowl in which they collect food. These bowls are often a simple clay pot or metal dish decorated with cowrie shells. In many places, half a double coconut, which is brought from the Seychelles, is used for this purpose. Some types of beggars attract the attention of passersby with simple musical instruments - bells, rattles, tambourines, copper horns, simple stringed instruments. Self-torturers enjoy special honor among the dark people. This kind of religious fanaticism has long been practiced in India and sometimes takes monstrous forms. You can often see a person with a raised arm, which in this position is stiff. Others undertake the same operation on their leg. Others sit motionless, resting their chin on a crutch, among four fires and, in addition, expose themselves to the scorching rays of the Indian sun. These strange lovers of heat are called "panchagnis", i.e. surrounded by five lights. Some beggars resort to a kind of coercion when the patient Hindu does not immediately fulfill their annoying requests. They publicly, in front of their victim, inflict wounds on themselves with a knife or a special tool. The unfortunate Hindu, in order to avoid popular fanaticism, is then forced to give much more than he was asked.
Religious begging is also practiced by Muslims. The general name for Muslim ascetics is fakir. Their ability to pierce parts of their body with sharp weapons is well known.
In general, asceticism is a distinctive feature of the Indian religion. For the average Hindu, this desire finds satisfaction in pilgrimages to one or more of the many shrines of his faith. In former times, when such pilgrimages were made on foot, and the path often lay through wild and dangerous areas, they were truly a great feat. Nowadays the main centers of Hinduism - Benares, Allahabad, Sagara Island, Puri, Kanjipuram, Rameshwaram, etc. - are easily accessible by rail and the number of pilgrims has thus increased greatly. Busy trading cities grew up around the shrines, in which the peasant arriving with accumulated money is supplied with all kinds of amulets, icons, images, and pictures from mythology. Some of these shrines, such as Benares and Allahabad, are located on the shore sacred rivers, and pilgrims go there to die. The corpses of the dead are burned in special "ghats", as the baths on the banks of the river are called, and their ashes are thrown into the river. Sometimes, in order to increase the merit resulting from pilgrimage, believers make the journey difficult for themselves. For example, devotees of Shiva in southern India go to the city of Palni, carrying on their shoulders a yoke to which copper pots containing rice and other sacrifices for the god are tied; Such rocker arms are decorated with carvings. Many make this journey running, shouting: “Eppol swami”, i.e. “When O Lord” (I see you).

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