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Basic concepts and subject of philosophy Fundamentals of philosophy
the doctrine of the general principles of existence, knowledge and relations between man and the world Philosophy (phileo and sofia)
Subject of philosophy Man Man - man Man - society Man - nature Man - world HUMAN SOCIETY NATURE THE WORLD AROUND 10 PHILOSOPHY 1. Form of social consciousness aimed at developing holistic view on the world and man’s place in it. 2. The doctrine of the general principles of being and knowledge, about man’s relationship to the world 3. The science of the universal laws of development of nature, society and thinking Philosophy CONNECTIONS
Structure of philosophical knowledge: Ontology (ontos and logos) - the doctrine of being. Epistemology (gnosis and logos) is the study of knowledge. Philosophical anthropology (anthropos and logos) is the study of man. Ethics is a philosophical theory of morality and ethics. Logic is the doctrine of consistent, consistent and demonstrative thinking. Axiology is the study of values. Aesthetics is the study of beauty, its laws and norms, etc.
Functions of philosophy Worldview Epistemological Methodological Social Axiological Humanistic rational-theoretical way of orientation in the world as a consequence of generalization, integration of culture assessment of all types of human practice and fundamental possibilities of knowledge development of the doctrine of the nature and laws of the cognitive process development of the theory of search activity, its principles, methods, norms harmonization public relations on humanitarian grounds, the affirmation of socially validated values, standards, ideals that regulate the diversity of social and personal relationships, the main task of philosophy is to show “what” one must be in order to be a person. eleven
This is a system of generalized views of the world, a person’s place in it and his attitude to this world, as well as the beliefs, feelings and ideals based on them that determine a person’s life position, the principles of his behavior and value orientations. Worldview -
Types of worldview Mythological Religious Philosophical is formed in the early stages of society and represents the first attempt by man to explain the origin and structure of the world, the appearance of people and animals on Earth, the causes of natural phenomena, to determine one’s place in the surrounding world formed at a relatively high stage of development society. Being a fantastic reflection of reality, it is distinguished by its belief in the existence of supernatural forces and their dominant role in the universe and the lives of people. Thus, belief in the supernatural is the basis of a religious worldview; it differs from mythology and religion by its focus on a rational explanation of the world. Most general ideas about nature, society, and man become the subject of theoretical consideration and logical analysis in philosophy
The main question of philosophy The ontological side of the main question The epistemological side of the main question What comes first: matter or consciousness? Do we know the world? 1. Primary matter– materialism (“Democritus’ line”) 2. Consciousness is primary – idealism (“Plato’s line”) 3. Matter and consciousness are equal and independent foundations of being – deism. 1. The world is knowable A) Empiricism (F. Bacon) - “there is nothing in thoughts (mind) that was not previously in feelings and experience" B) Rationalism - (from the Latin rationalis - reasonable) - a philosophical direction that recognizes reason is the basis of human cognition and behavior, the source and criterion of the truth of all human aspirations in life. 2. The world is unknowable A) Agnosticism (I. Kant) - there are mysteries and contradictions that will never be solved by humanity (for example, does God exist) B) Skepticism - a philosophical trend that puts forward doubt as a principle of thinking, especially doubt about the reliability of truth .
WHAT CAN PHILOSOPHY GIVE TO EVERY PERSON? (PRACTICAL MEANING OF STUDYING PHILOSOPHY)
Philosophy Answer the most fundamental questions about the world and man Help you understand your place in the world and the meaning of life Teach the principles of “ wise life"(i.e., life without illusions, without suffering, without delusions, etc.) Strengthen the inner spiritual “core” and develop the ability to persistently overcome life’s difficulties (never give up). Teach a synthetic (philosophical) style of thinking, i.e. the ability to deeply and comprehensively see any problem and solve it fruitfully Teach knowledge of the future Teach to improve and reveal one’s inner strengths
Homework Explain how you understand the expression “find the philosopher’s stone”? Where did this expression come from? “Philosophy… alone distinguishes us from savages and barbarians… Every nation is the more civilized and educated, the better they philosophize” (R. Descartes). What is "philosophizing"? What is the meaning of this concept?
Slide 1
Topic 1. Worldview: concept and problems. Socio-historical nature of the worldview Mythogenic and epistemogenic concepts of the origin of philosophy Diversity of areas philosophical understanding reality The problem of the subject of philosophy. Two sides of the main question of philosophy and its solution. Specificity of philosophical knowledge. Functions of philosophy
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Worldview: concept, structure, levels
worldview Theoretical level - worldview knowledge Ordinary-practical (everyday) - worldview (everyday philosophy, common sense) beliefs beliefs Values and norms skills esoteric Traditions. customs ideals activities assessments
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The socio-historical nature of the worldview
man world worldview mythological religious philosophical Myth - legend, legend. Syncretic view of the world Doubling the world - natural, supernatural, the main component is faith Love of wisdom, the problem of the relationship between man and the world Social and historical types
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The problem of the origin of philosophy
Philosophy is not only the doctrine of the greatest questions that can concern a person, it itself is one of the most difficult problems that it tries to solve. Mythogenic concept of the origin of philosophy Epistemogenic concept of the origin of philosophy Myth-making - as the main premise of philosophy The rudiments scientific knowledge– as a prerequisite for philosophy, the problem does not explain philosophical rationalism. Does not explain the speculative metaphysics of the former philosophical schools
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Specificity of philosophical knowledge
mythology Mythology Artistic and figurative exploration of the world Philosophy Conceptual and logical form of thinking and exploration of the world Concepts, categories Methods. principles Theories, systems Main questions: What can I know? What should I do? What can I hope for? What is a person? (I. Kant) The answer to them: Cannot be found experimentally Has a value connotation, is focused on human presence, human interest and evaluation
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The diversity of areas of philosophical understanding of the world
ontology epistemology dialectics methodology
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The problem of the subject of philosophy
the problem of the relationship between man and the world (in in a broad sense) 1. Not localized in a specific area of reality 2. Historically mobile and specific (the decision depends on the achieved level of socio-historical practice: the level of development of material and spiritual production, the level of development of scientific knowledge) In order to judge philosophy, one must live by it and that who can't live philosophical subject must refrain from making judgments about philosophy itself and its subject (Ilyin I.A.)
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The Basic Question of Philosophy
being consciousness spirit matter “I” “NOT-I” The main question of philosophy Ontological aspect (1st side) Epistemological aspect (2nd side) What is primary? Being or consciousness Is the world knowable? (problem of the identity of thinking and being)
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Solving the fundamental question of philosophy
Solution of the 1st side of the OVF Solution of the 2nd side of the OVF What is primary: being or consciousness is the world knowable (nature, society) monism dualism The world is knowable Reliable knowledge of the world is impossible Matter is primary consciousness is secondary Matter depends on the spiritual principle The material and spiritual principles exist independently ( Descartes) Agnosticism (D.Hume.I.Kant) Optimism (materialists, some idealists) skepticism materialism (Heraclitus, Democritus, Diderot, Marx) idealism Subjective (Berkeley, Hume, existentialism, neopositivism) Objective (Plato, Hegel, neo-Thomism)
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Main philosophical directions and classical representatives
materialism idealism subjective objective Antiquity: Plato Middle Ages: Thomas Aquinas German classical philosophy: Hegel Antiquity: Socrates Modern times: Berkeley, Hume, Kant. Fichte
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materialism idealism metaphysical dialectical Atomistic doctrine of Democritus (antiquity) (allows the movement of atoms in emptiness) Mechanistic materialism of the New Age: F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, La Mettrie, Holbach (absolutization of the principles of mechanics) Philosophy of Marxism: K. Marx (recognizes the possibility of change, development society (nature), and as a consequence of thinking)
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FUNCTIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHY AS A FORM OF SOCIAL CONSCIOUSNESS PHILOSOPHY AS A SCIENCE PHILOSOPHY AS A WORLDVIEW COGNITIVE FUNCTION - KNOWLEDGE OF THE UNIVERSAL WORLDVIEW METHODOLOGICAL CRITICAL-PROGNOSTIC MANAGEMENT
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Philosophy, the range of its problems and role in society.
Worldview is a necessary part of the spiritual culture of society, the inner world of every human person. Heterogeneous
blocks of knowledge, beliefs, thoughts, images, ideals, feelings and moods,
aspirations and hopes, uniting in a holistic picture of the surrounding action
telnosti appear as more or less developed, ordered or
chaotic, true or illusory understanding by people of the world as a whole, its
parts and states; as a person’s awareness of himself and his place in
world, as a memory of the past, a vision of the present and anticipation of the future
The composition of the worldview includes and plays in it, each with its own specific
the role of everyday impressions, everyday or everyday practical
Chinese knowledge, professional skills, deep scientific truths. All these
components make up the life experience of both an individual and non-
which community of people - groups or masses, and the more respectable, the richer
However, knowledge never fills the entire field of worldview.
In addition to knowledge about the world and man himself as its element in the worldview
the whole way of life is comprehended human life, certain
systems of value orientations - judgments about good and evil, good and fair
liveliness, beauty and ugliness, friendship and enmity, love and hatred, etc.
Here images of the past are created and projects for the future are constructed,
various motives and modes of behavior receive approval or condemnation and
of life in general.
In general, action programs and the direction of people’s actions have
there are two pillars under it: knowledge and values, which are in many ways opposite
we are in essence and at the same time complement each other as two sides of the same
noah coin. Cognition is driven by the desire for truth, for the correct and precise
new reproduction essential features and objective content of the re-
al reality. Value consciousness has a different meaning. It
embodies the attitude of people to everything that exists and occurs
from a strictly human point of view, subjectively, that is, in accordance
in accordance with their needs, interests, goals, one or another understanding
we eat the meaning of their own lives. The idea of the world in terms of values
pecte is the human dimension of many different fragments of action.
telnosti.
With all their heterogeneity, the cognitive and value ways of establishing
the war of the world by human consciousness and practical action must
be harmonized, brought into agreement. It is also necessary that
an intense unity of the other poles in the content of the world was achieved
views: feelings and reason, understanding and action, faith and doubt, theory
practical and practical experience of people, understanding the past and foresight
research of the future. Their harmonious combination is always the result of a complex,
long and sometimes painful spiritual work, called nevertheless
ensure integrity and coherence human experience and give him hope
new guidelines in the present and future life.
Worldview is capable of expanding the narrow boundaries of everyday life, con-
specific place and time. It allows you to correlate the experience of each given
a person with the experience of other people, including those who lived before, and
even in the distant past. The meaning accumulates and becomes clear in the worldview.
are in touch with spiritual world ancestors, grandfathers and fathers, neighbors and distant
temporary workers, while carefully preserving some things, and resolutely refusing others.
So, a worldview is an integral body of knowledge, represented
ideas, judgments, assessments and principles that define the most general vision and
understanding of the world, the place of man in it, and at the same time shaping life
certain positions, behavioral structures and programs of human activity. IN
worldview in a generalized form presents cognitive, value-
nay and behavioral sides human existence.
Worldview expressed in its everyday, common, mass
manifestations, in everyday forms, contains not only a rich
“memory of centuries”, convincing life experience, traditions, faith and doubts,
but also many misconceptions and prejudices.
Everyday interpretation in its everyday forms has a spontaneous character.
character, it is chaotic, does not differ in any deep thoughtfulness
ness, systematicity, validity. That's why at this level there is no
Logic is always maintained; emotions can lead to
cloud the mind, revealing a lack of common sense. Everyday thinking
thinking is momentary and mundane, it gives in to problems that require
serious knowledge, culture of thoughts and feelings, understanding of important values
and striving for high ideals.
These shortcomings are overcome at the theoretical level of worldview.
niya, when a person approaches the world from a position of reason, acts based on
logic, justifying your statements and conclusions, coordinating them with science
and practice, fitting them into the context of historical tradition and modern
sti. Philosophy deals with this on a professional basis.
In the history of the spiritual culture of society, the following main forms of worldview took place: mythology, religion, science and philosophy.
Mythology - the most ancient form of worldview. It arose in no time
memorable times and represented a syncretic, that is, holistic,
undifferentiated emotional and rational, theoretical and practical
logical, realistic and fantastic picture of reality. IN
myths intricately intertwined ancient legends, truthful narratives
stories about historical events, travel to other countries, origins
crafts, observations of nature, and at the same time fictional races
tales about gods and heroes, magical things and phenomena, miraculous transformations
ah, amazing creatures.
In myths, immortal gods intervened in the affairs of people, helped them or
harmed, quarreled and made peace, loved and gave birth to children, including from
of people. All of nature was inhabited by spiritualized and human-like
creatures: nymphs splashed in rivers and lakes among the Greeks, naiads among the Romans,
mermaids among the Slavs; dryads or goblins lived in the forests; in swamps - kikimoras; V
whirlpools - water.
The forces of nature were personified. God knew thunder and lightning
Zeus among the Greeks, Jupiter among the Romans, Perun among the Slavs; The sun was Helios or
Yarilo; the seas and ocean were ruled by Poseidon or Neptune; it was underground
the kingdom of Hades or Pluto.
The mythological worldview was artistic, that is, expressed
was expressed as a perception of the world through sensual visual images: literature
tour plot, pictorial image, sculptural statue. It was
also anthropomorphic, that is, humanized representation of action
telnosti. The gods were not just similar in appearance to humans; they were approached
just like with their fellow tribesmen with pleas or threats, they were tried
appease them with offerings or punish their images with rods for not
completed orders. The pantheon of gods was an exact reproduction
management of the tribal family: the patriarch is at the head, and around him are wives, children, many
numerical relatives in different tribes.
Religion in its embryonic forms also appeared in ancient times
ity in the form of animism - the animation of living and inanimate beings and objects
tov of the surrounding world; totemism - worship of one's animal ancestors;
fetishism - endowing various things and phenomena with magical properties
ny; magic - belief in a person’s ability through ritual actions
influence other people, animals and natural forces, and even gods and
spirits As varieties of magic there were witchcraft, witchcraft, sha-
manism, witchcraft and the like.
As an independent form of worldview, religion is formed in the
the period of decomposition of tribal society and the formation of civilizations, when
are world religions, such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism
dism. These religions are based on the principle of monotheism, that is, monotheism, and
the person of God acquires a fundamentally new understanding in them. God is
creator of all things, demiurge and omnipotent, a being not of this world,
transcendental, that is otherworldly entity, absolute perfection
in, standing outside and above nature, society, man. In the worldview
In this form, the main characteristic of religion reaches completeness: faith in
supernatural.
The science, like religion, it is formed as a worldview based on the content
mythology. But if religion concentrates fantastic
elements of myths and gives them a sacred, sacred character, then science
absorbs realistic elements of myths into its content, representing
which are accumulated and recorded in knowledge, that is, in symbolic
models and, above all, in language, the experience of practical activities of people in
development and transformation of the natural and social environment surrounding them
Observations of climate, changing seasons of the year, the movement of stars on non-
be, the flow and overflow of rivers, the ebb and flow of the seas; usage
properties of various materials - metals, wood, clay, leather, fruits
shadows and animal products during their processing and further consumption
them as utilitarian values that satisfy the needs of people and topics
most beneficial - this is the material from which one begins to build
Xia scientific picture peace.
Philosophy also arises in that era when tribal consciousness is no longer
able to express the spiritual content of the culture of a rapidly developing
civilized society. Moreover, philosophy occupies a special place in
worldview constructs: it cannot be derived directly from the world
fov or represent as generalized and expressed in abstract form
experience of practical activities of people. Just like science, it stands apart
it also in relation to religion, since it strives to give rational, then
there is a reasonable explanation of reality, not relying on blind faith and
especially on ridiculous superstitions.
The specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in the fact that this knowledge has
reflective character, from the Latin reflectia - reflection, that is, it is such
knowledge in which the main subject of comprehension is the person himself. Co-
where a person thinks about everything that exists not detachedly, but from the perspective of his own
subjective attitude towards nature, society and even God; when a person
first of all, pays attention to his own actions from the point of view
of their own interests and through the prism of their own human
grades; when a person strives to imagine not the world in general, not the world as
such, and as my world, he enters the field of philosophy.
Religion and science are in opposition to each other: these are alternative and irreconcilable forms of worldview, and as human society develops in the course of the evolution of its spiritual culture, the gap between religion and science widens and deepens.
The outstanding philosopher of the twentieth century, Bertrand Russell, expressed the idea that
philosophy is precisely intended to serve as a bridge between religion and science, it
must develop the no-man's land between them, build its own theories
ical constructions between the areas of ardent imagination and dry fact,
which each give in itself a one-sided and, therefore, incomplete
a new and insufficient picture of reality.
Philosophy, therefore, is the center, the system-forming
the core of the worldview, ensuring its integrity and completeness.
Philosophy has existed for three thousand years. In European culture it arose at the end of the 5th century BC in Ancient Greece. Over the twenty-six centuries of development of the philosophical worldview, many dozens of philosophical schools, teachings, and theories have been created; hundreds of outstanding and great thinkers made their original and unique contribution to the treasury of philosophical knowledge. How to understand the diversity of philosophical constructs, different worldview ideas, alternative and often opposite in meaning and competing with each other philosophical theories?
The criterion for evaluating certain philosophical positions was proposed in his “Lectures on the History of Philosophy” by the great German philosopher 19th century Georg Hegel: the place of a particular theory can be determined in accordance with how it solves the problem of the relationship of thinking to being . Another German thinker of the same century, classic Marxist philosophy Friedrich Engels in Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German philosophy"named this problem the main question of philosophy and formulated it as follows: “The great fundamental question of all, and especially modern philosophy, there is a question about what comes first: matter or consciousness, being or thinking, nature or spirit?” Another way to pose the question is: “Is the world created by God, or has it existed from eternity?” In other words, primacy does not boil down to the answer “earlier - later,” but means the beginning and the reason, the basis and the essence.
The basic question of philosophy also allows for a dual answer: both matter and consciousness are primordial entities and cannot be reduced to each other. Each of them is independent and in reality they occupy an equal place. This position is called dualism and was encountered in the history of philosophy much less frequently than materialism and idealism
lism, which, affirming the principle of the unity of the world, can be characterized by
vans as monism, monistic philosophy from mono – one. Vividly presented
The champion of dualism was the French philosopher of the seventeenth century, Rene Descartes.
It is also possible to answer this answer to the basic question of philosophy, in
which asserts the existence of a set of first principles, in the limiting case
unlimited set. This solution is called pluralism
from Latin pluralis - multiple and was proposed only once per
the entire history of philosophy by the great German thinker of the seventeenth century Gottf-
Read by Leibniz.
Another problem, namely: “ do we know the world?? is a person capable
correctly and with all possible depth to comprehend the essence of the surrounding
his reality? - this problem was received in the mentioned work by En-
Gels name of the second side of the main question of philosophy, according to
since we are talking about the interconnection and unity of being and thinking. This question
allows two answers: “the world is knowable,” and such a solution is called epistemological
gical optimism from the Greek gnoseo - I know; and “the world is unknowable” -
epistemological pessimism or agnosticism, prominent representatives of the co-
who were the 15th-century Scottish philosopher David Hume and the ancestor
German classical philosophy of the 19th century Immanuel Kant.
Options for solving both the first and second sides of the main issue
philosophies represent the main types of philosophical constructions, and
particular solutions within each type of decision make up further
a new classification of philosophical theories.
The subject of philosophy has changed over time due to the fact that philosophical knowledge has a reflective character. It focuses on those ideas, concepts and experiences that constitute the center of the spiritual culture of society in a particular historical period.
era, to which people's keen interest was directed in a certain period.
period of their historical development, which fill both the consciousness of individual
people and society as a whole.
So, in the ancient era, from the 6th century BC to the 4th century AD
the subject of comprehension was nature, since people at that time had not yet
differentiated themselves from nature, did not oppose themselves to it, and moreover, mentioned
doubled themselves to nature, believing that man is a microcosm, that is, small
some semblance of big space. Natural forces and elements, structure of the earth
and the sky, events and phenomena in the surrounding ecumene - inhabited and mastered
people the world - the natural environment: this is what occupies the minds of ancient thinkers -
lei. In the naturalistic worldview of Antiquity, man is inscribed in co-
becoming the cosmos as one of its elements and understanding the cosmic order
is of paramount importance. Due to this circumstance, the philosophy of an
era can be characterized as cosmocentrism .
In the Middle Ages, from V to XIV, the orientation of philosophy changed radically -
in a different way, because central place in the spiritual culture of society
religion occupies and philosophy reflects on the content of religious
worldview doctrines. Now she is occupied with the problems of the creation of the world,
divine revelation, harmony of faith and reason, purpose of existence and
end of the world. A prominent place is occupied by the problem of theodicy - the justification of God and
searching for the source of evil.
It is clear that the central figure of the religious worldview is
the Creator himself, whose essence they strive to comprehend both by the power of the mind and
through supersensible intuition, when someone with deep and sincere
with her faith to man, divine Providence will lift the veil of secrecy
Tia. In connection with the orientation towards comprehending God and His sacred will, the medium
age-old philosophy appears before us as theocentrism(from Greek
theos - God).
The next era - the Renaissance, XV - XVI centuries - puts forward the leading
role in public life another form of spiritual culture, namely
but: art. Renaissance, the Renaissance was the time of genius
creativity of great masters of painting and music, poetry and prose, sculpture and
architecture The humanist movement (from the Latin-
Russian humanum - man), instilling by all means of art respect for
human dignity, proclaiming the intrinsic value of human life.
A man-artist, a man-master, a man-creator - he is almost equal to
relates to the Lord God himself, and in any case as an image and likeness
God on earth, man has free will and therefore he himself is
master of his destiny and bears responsibility for his past deeds and dirt
future consequences. This direction of ideological thought is called
Xia anthropocentrism(from the Greek anthropos - man).
The Age of Enlightenment covers the 17th - 18th centuries and is characterized by turbulent
the development of science, which, after the philosophical manifestos of Francis Bacon
acquires an experimental, experimental character and turns from mental
visual and speculative scholasticism, university scholasticism, in
science in modern understanding this word, that is, in the professional
Academic scientific communities, book printing and the emergence of mass media
the howl of the press, the spread of literacy from secular salons to urban
and even the rural lower classes—these are signs of the times. Outstanding scientists, funda-
mental theories in natural science, amazing discoveries in research
research of living and inanimate nature - these are the achievements of the era. The very word “pro-
illumination” means the struggle of the light of reason against the darkness of ignorance, the light of science
ki against religious obscurantism. Reflection on science leads to philosophic
Sofia to the fact that she acts as gnoseocentrism(from the Greek gnosis -
In the 19th century, the era of classicism begins. Classic, that is, the image
tsovye, serving as an example and a subject of study and imitation, complete
great and perfect creations are the ideal of the century before last. In this period
classical theories are created in science, classical literature appears
ra, painting, music. In Russia, for example, these are Lobachevsky and Mendeleev,
poets and prose writers of Pushkin’s literature, Wanderers artists, “mo-
a dense bunch of composers.
The nineteenth century is the time of the Napoleonic wars, stormy and bloody
new revolutions from the Decembrists to the Paris Commune, deep social
new reforms. The historical process has become not only noticeable - it has acquired character.
the nature of the stormy public life and the state of society, legal and social
These problems are brought to the forefront in science, journalism and even art.
in the art of social science to replace natural science. Philosophy displays
a new focus of public attention and acts as sociocentrism(from
Greek socium - society).
Finally, the modern era, the 20th century, is the time of the largest social
new revolutions of global significance; during the world wars, involving
driving most of humanity into the tragedy of self-destruction; all the time
peace organizations such as the League of Nations and the UN; time of creation of large
the largest regional unions of a supranational character in Europe, North-
noah America, Asia-Pacific region.
The twentieth century is the century of globalization of social life, when many
various processes from the spheres of ecology and demography to the fields of economics and politics
tics are acquiring a planetary scale. Weapons of mass destruction
research, satellite communication systems, transnational corporations formed the first supporting structures of a single humanity. Under these conditions, politics, management technologies, the formation of public opinion, and the cultivation of mass psychology and ideology begin to play an exceptional role.
Philosophy reacts to the spiritual innovations of the era by highlighting from its
subject of a special discipline - political science, with keen attention
to social issues, and because of this she herself acts at this stage
development of your subject as political centrism(from the Greek polis - city, go-
state).
It is almost impossible to give an unambiguous definition of philosophy that would suit everyone. For example, in 1998, M. Keligov’s book “Philosophers on Philosophy - the Experience of Self-Comprehension” was published. It contains statements about the philosophy of more than 270 prominent philosophers. Everyone has their own angle of vision, their own definition. But there is still a general approach:
“Philosophy is an era captured in thoughts.” (F.-W. Hegel).
“The task of philosophy is to explain everything that exists” (V. Solovyov)
« Philosophical problems become like this if they strive under the beam of one problem - the ultimate meaning.” (M. Mamardashvili).
In all these statements one core idea can be traced: philosophy appears as a thinking worldview, as an essential understanding, the highest orientation, the peak expression of meanings and values, an indication of the strategic goal of our stay in the universe.
But from the moment of its inception to this day, philosophy has faced its own rejection, resistance, and attempts at rejection. This is due to many factors, and, above all, to crisis phenomena in culture, when many say that they have lost faith in philosophy. However, it is important to remember that crisis phenomena are transitory. And although old ideas are overthrown, they are then addressed again, and they appear in a completely new way. All of them are “facets of integrity, highlights of unity.” They all complement each other (ancient and postmodern, system-logical and aphoristic) - they are united by a commonality of problems and depth of vision, involvement in eternity, in the fundamental sources of thought and human existence, the desire for everyday life to being.
Philosophy is not only closely connected with all spheres of culture (science, art, religion, politics, ideology, etc.), but to some extent it is part of them, or we can say, on the contrary, that philosophy combines some qualities of science, art, religion, ordinary common sense and even mysticism. Let's consider these relationships in more detail.
Of course, philosophy cannot ignore science with its standards, norms and ideals, but it is impossible to turn philosophy into a strict science, since philosophy also has its own self-sufficient ways of posing problems and substantiating insights. Philosophy is initially and fundamentally pluralistic, while natural science is unambiguous in its conclusions. Philosophy exists because there are questions that science will never answer. Freedom cannot be scientifically substantiated. Although scientists are free people, their thought unfolds within the rigid framework of established patterns, facts and circumstances, and inexorable logic. Philosophical thought can be involuntary, non-rational, it can be aphoristic, essayistic and even deconstructive. This is an example of free inspiration that can build any imaginary worlds. Philosophy is borderline knowledge, it is always on the verge of knowledge and ignorance, hidden and unhidden.
The difference between the language of philosophy and the scientific language, primarily natural science, is especially clear when comparing dictionaries. If in the dictionary of natural science each term is given a clear definition, the methods and areas of its application are indicated, and only in rare cases is the name of the scientist who first used this term mentioned, then a completely different picture in philosophical dictionary. Up to ninety percent of its content is historical information, reporting who used the term under discussion and in what sense. That is, the philosophical dictionary presents more of the history of concepts and principles - a kind of episodes in the development of the language of philosophy, while the dictionary of a specific science provides a theory of concepts and principles.
The problem fields of philosophy and religion are especially close. Maybe, religious consciousness more canonical and dogmatic, and philosophy as a substance can take any beginning: idea, absolute, chaos, life, will, matter, Tao, unity, etc. Philosophical reflection can organically complement the reality of the world in religious and mystical experience.
If you get acquainted with philosophical texts, it becomes clear that every philosopher has his own writing style, just like every writer working in the field fiction, has its own unique style. IN philosophical texts Paths and images reminiscent of art are often used - all this brings philosophy closer to art.
At the same time, philosophical language is much closer to everyday, spoken language than, for example, the language of science. Philosophizing includes the installation of common sense with its orientation towards knowledge of the immediate causes of phenomena. In everyday life, such a phenomenon of human life as wisdom often manifests itself. We can say " a wise man”, “wise philosopher”, but we are unlikely to say “wise engineer” or “wise chemist”. It is no coincidence that the word “philosophy” is translated as “love of wisdom.” In its love for wisdom, philosophy, embracing all the achievements of culture, comprehends them, highlights the most important, essential. But this happens not only in the form of detached analysis, but through deep interest, experience and sympathy.
However, we know that there is a concept of worldview, as a set of views, assessments, norms, attitudes that determine a person’s attitude to the world and act as guidelines and regulators of his behavior. How do these two concepts relate: philosophy and worldview? There is a twofold answer here. On the one hand, philosophy is a high theoretical level of worldview, where the worldview itself appears in the form of knowledge and is of a systematized, ordered nature. But on the other hand, given that the concept of worldview covers a much wider range of phenomena, we can consider that philosophy is part (or one of the forms) of worldview (although undoubtedly one of the most theoretically thought out). Other important forms of worldview include mythological and religious.
Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. At the earliest stage social development humanity in the form of myths. that is, legends, legends, tried to answer global questions of the origin and structure of the universe as a whole, to express ideas about the emergence of the most important natural phenomena, the life of animals and people. The ideas embodied in myths were closely intertwined with rituals and served as an object of faith. As the cult system was formed, that is, a system of ritual actions aimed at establishing certain relationships with the supernatural, absolute, and eternal, a religious worldview was also formed. It helped a person to break out of the sphere of the transitory, temporary - into the sphere of the ideal, absolute, eternal (transcendent), gave stability to human existence, the meaning of human life.
An immortal monument ancient culture are Homer's works "Iliad" and "Odyssey". One can say about Homer’s philosophical views that he was entirely on the basis of philosophy. He owns the saying: “We are all water and earth.” He did not ask a philosophical question about the origin of the world. These kinds of questions were first put forward by Hesiod (VII century BC), a peasant poet, author of the famous “Works and Days” and “Theogony”. He presented the myths as a whole, describing the genealogy and vicissitudes of the host of Olympian gods. "Bloodline of the Gods" begins like this: in the beginning there was Chaos. From it the Earth (Gaia) was born. Together with the Earth, Eros and Erebus are born - the beginning of darkness in general and Night as self-determined darkness. From the marriage of Erebus and Night, Ether is born as light in general and Day as a specific light. Gaia gives birth to Heaven - the visible firmament, as well as mountains and the depths of the sea. This is the preliminary “Theogony”, i.e. origin of the world. After this, the genealogy of the gods begins: from the marriage of Gaia and Uranus, i.e. Earth and Sky, Oceanus and Tethys are born, as well as Cyclops and giant titans, personifying various space force. From one of the titans of Kronos, a new generation of gods originates: the son of Kronos, Zev, in the struggle for power, cuts off his father’s “manhood,” which from a huge heavenly height falls into the sea, raising a strong wave, and emerges from the sea foam in all its divine glory. beauty goddess of love - Aphrodite. The goddess of justice, Dike and Necessity, is the beginning of all earthly birth and fusion - the one who sends a woman to mate with a man and, conversely, a man with a woman; she took Cupid as her assistant and gave birth to him first of all the gods.
At an early stage of history, the mythological way of thinking began to be filled with rational content and corresponding forms of thinking: the power of generalizing and analytical thinking increased, science and philosophy arose, concepts and categories of the philosophical mind itself arose, and the process of transition from myth to Logos took place. However, logos does not displace mythology: it is immortal, poetry is filled with it, it captivates children’s imagination, delights the mind and feelings of people of all ages, promoting the development of imagination, which has a beneficial effect on the development of a person’s creative capabilities in all spheres of his activity.
The word “philosophy” was first uttered by the great thinker of Ancient Greece - Pythagoras. One of his students addressed him with the words: “O, sophicos!”, That is, “sage,” and then Pythagoras replied: “I am not a sage, I am only a lover of wisdom. Only Gods can know everything. I'm just striving for it."
In Ancient Greece there was a great thinker named Socrates. And one day
they asked the famous Oracle in the temple of Apollo in the city of Delphi: who appears
says the wisest of the Hellenes? And the Delphic Oracle, who always answers
began very evasively, this time he gave a very definite answer: wise
The greatest of the Hellenes is Socrates. They came to Socrates and conveyed to him the words
wa Oracle. To this opinion, Socrates shrugged his shoulders and said: “I only know
Was also in Ancient Greece famous philosopher Diogenes from the city
Sinope. He was so famous that a great man came to talk to him
commander Alexander the Great, and he was so admired by the intelligence
Diogenes, who exclaimed: “I am the great Alexander. I can do anything
Your wish. Ask for whatever you want." To this Diogenes replied: “Oto-
move to the side, you’re blocking the sun for me.” And then Alexander said:
"If I were not the great Alexander, I would like to be Diogenes."
So one day the sophist philosopher Antisthenes turned to Diogenes and said:
audience: “Listen, Diogenes! If you are the wisest of us, then why are you more
asking everyone questions?” In response, Diogenes took a twig and drew on the sand
diagram. Drawing a small circle, he said: “Here is your knowledge.” Then
described a large circle around this circle and said: “And here is my knowledge. And those-
Now look which of us has more boundaries with the unknown.” In this and co-
there is Diogenes' paradox: the more we know, the more we are convinced of
own ignorance.
In order to determine the quality of intelligence, we can offer the following:
some concept as a mindset . Let's start with an ordinary warehouse as a room in which
different things are stored in a torus. In one case it could be a dark closet
or an abandoned attic, where all kinds of rubbish are haphazardly thrown into a heap, and when
we need something, we can rummage through our junk for a long time, choosing
struggling and not achieving success. Otherwise, it will be a bright room-
one where all things are laid out on shelves, each in its place, equipped
tag, cataloged, and when the need arises, we will find it
quickly and easily and let's put it into action. So in our head we can have either
a dark closet or a bright room, and then wisdom is a good warehouse
mind, that is, a bright, orderly, well-organized mind , which
can be used effectively both in work and in life.
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Presentation slides
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PRESENTATION
Lecture “SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY” (part 1).
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Issues covered:
1.The concept of society. 2. Society and its structure. 3.Specifics of social reality. 4.Composition of social reality. 5.Civil society and the state. 6. Development of society.
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1.The concept of society
The Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language gives six different meanings. Society is a collection of people united by historically determined social forms of joint life and activity (“feudal society”). Or a circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (“noble society”). A voluntary, permanent association of people for some purpose (“philatelist society”). This or that environment of people, company (“get into bad company”).
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SOCIAL REALITY
Society is not just a collection of people, but also a real, objectively existing collection of conditions for their life together. Social reality (Emile Durkheim) differs from natural reality and is not reducible to the latter. But it is as “real” as nature, although it has its own specifics. This is a “suprabiological” and “supraindividual” reality, which is primary in relation to the biopsychic reality embodied in human individuals. After all, a person, with his biological and mental organization, can only exist in the conditions of social life.
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SCOPE OF THE CONCEPT “SOCIETY”
Firstly, society can be understood as social organisms of different scales: A separate society taking place in a certain territory during a certain historical time (ancient Greek society, modern Russian society and so on.). Regional unification of several separate societies (sociocultural world). For example, Western European society Muslim world. Human society is a set of all individual societies, considered as a single historically developing whole.
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MEANINGS OF THE CONCEPT “SOCIETY”
Secondly, the concept of “society” takes on different meanings depending on the level of abstraction at which society is considered: At the first level, the concept of society reflects a specific historically formed social organism - a separate society, a sociocultural world, human society as a whole. At a higher level of abstraction, this concept means a certain type of society: primitive society, industrial society, etc.
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"SOCIETY IN GENERAL"
Finally, at the highest level it refers to “society in general.” It is constructed by abstracting from the specific features by which various social organisms differ from each other, and captures only those features and characteristics that are inherent in any type of society. In other words, this concept reflects the properties of social reality in general.
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2.Structure (structure) of society.
Subsystems or social structures of society include various kinds of social communities, groups, organizations, such as family, ethnic group, nation, classes, etc. Here attention is drawn to questions concerning their nature, their interrelationships, their social functions, their places and roles in the development of society, these issues will be discussed later.
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THREE MAIN AREAS OF PUBLIC LIFE:
firstly, productive, utilitarian activities related to the satisfaction of vital needs; secondly, organizational and managerial activities designed to ensure the consistency of collective actions and public order; thirdly, information activity, consisting of the accumulation, preservation and transmission of knowledge, values and norms of behavior.
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3.Specifics of social reality
Social life is the entire set of conditions of social life that appear to members of society as supra-individual, objectively given circumstances of their existence. Social reality consists of phenomena that Durkheim calls social facts. This is a special type of phenomena that takes place only in society, only in the life of people together. They contain some kind of spirituality emanating from people, which is not found in physical, chemical, biological facts.
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4.Composition of social reality
Let us highlight some of the most important components of social reality. The people themselves, their associations, relationships, actions are the main component of social reality, its creative force. A person in whom the material and spiritual, body and soul are united, spreads this “duality” around him. And this “two-layer” - material and spiritual - content of social reality in the human world.
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The most obvious way in which man's ability to impart meaning to his creations is manifested in language. Communicating through language, people attribute meanings to the sounds of oral speech (or letters of written speech) that they physically - like air vibrations (or some kind of squiggles) - do not possess on their own.
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ARTIFACTS
The world of material artifacts. Artifacts (from the Latin arte - artificial and faktuz - made) in the broadest sense of the word are any artificially created object, in contrast to objects that arose naturally in nature. Artifacts include things made by people’s hands, thoughts born in their heads, means and methods of action they found, forms of living together, etc.
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NATURAL PHENOMENA
involved in the sphere of social activities. By mastering nature, people perceive meaning - value, benefit, etc. – also in its naturally occurring phenomena. So, for example, oil, which once had nothing to do with social reality, entered it and turned into the social wealth of the country.
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COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS
Each person develops his own individual picture of the world around him. But at the same time, there are also general views, ideas, and mental attitudes that are current in society and more or less shared by its members. E. Durkheim called them “collective representations.” They exist in people's heads, but do not depend on the personal nature of individuals.
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5. Civil society and the state.
The state occupies a special place among all social organizations. Confucius likened the state to a large family and believed that the support of state power is morality, love and respect of the younger for the elders. This was opposed by the school of fajia (“legalists”), which argued that state policy is incompatible with morality and power should be built not on moral principles and conscience, but on law and fear of punishment.
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MAIN FEATURES OF THE STATE:
1. Public power - a system of government bodies and institutions, a special apparatus of management (parliament, government, ministries, etc.) and coercion (“power” bodies: army, police, etc.). 2. A system of legal norms, legal laws that regulate social relations (in contrast to customs and traditions operating in the primitive system, legal laws are established by the state and implemented thanks to its force).
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3. Territorial division of the population (in contrast to the division of the population according to consanguinity in the clan system, the state unites with its power and protects all people inhabiting its territory, regardless of belonging to any clan or tribe). 4. A system of taxes that provide funds for the maintenance of the state apparatus, as well as organizations and people supported by the state (in the field of education, health care, social security), and for the implementation of functions that the state must perform.
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MAIN FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE:
1. Law enforcement - ensuring compliance with the rule of law by all persons of the state, combating crime, protecting the rights and freedoms of citizens. 2. Economic – regulation of the country’s economic life through a system of taxation, price regulation, support for priority sectors of the economy, etc.
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3. Social – protection of the disabled and low-income population, creation of conditions for the development of healthcare, education, public transport, etc. 4. Cultural – ensuring the activities of institutions of science, art, religion, media mass media etc. IN modern conditions All higher value acquires 5. the ecological function of the state.
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EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS OF THE STATE:
1. National defense or military expansion in relation to other countries. 2. Foreign policy activity – pursuing the interests of the state in international relations with other states. 3. Foreign economic activity – trade, industrial and financial contacts with other states. Among the external functions in modern world 4. international cooperation in the field of social, humanitarian, cultural, technical, scientific interaction and exchange occupies an important place.
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FORMS OF STATE
Nowadays, states are usually distinguished by forms of government, government system and political regime. According to forms of government, states are divided into monarchies and republics. Signs of a monarchy: power is inherited; power belongs to the ruler (monarch) indefinitely. There are unlimited and limited monarchies. Signs of a republic: elected government; election for a specified period. Republics are divided into presidential, parliamentary and mixed. Dictatorship is considered a special form.
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IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF A DEMOCRATIC STATE:
1.Sovereignty of the people, that is, the only source of power in the country is the people, who exercise their power directly, as well as through state authorities and local governments. 2. The rule of law in all spheres of life and the presence of effective forms of control over the implementation of laws. 3. The inviolability of individual rights and freedoms, its legal protection, the mutual responsibility of citizens and the state to each other.
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4. The social nature of the state - its policy is aimed at creating conditions that ensure decent life and free development of man. 5. Recognition and protection equally of private, state, municipal and other forms of property. 6. Separation of executive, legislative and judicial powers.
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CIVIL SOCIETY
One of the phenomena of modern democracy is civil society. Civil society is the sphere of self-expression of free citizens and voluntarily formed associations and organizations, independent of direct interference and arbitrary regulation by government authorities. The formation of its concept dates back to the second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries. The philosophy of the Enlightenment, German classical philosophy, in the works of whose representatives the need for a clear distinction between the state and civil society began to be realized, gave priority to the state (especially Hegel).
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PRIORITY OF CIVIL SOCIETY
On the contrary, in the philosophy and sociology of Marxism, as well as in most modern political science and sociological theories, the priority of civil society over the state is affirmed, and its expansion and strengthening is seen as one of the most important conditions for social progress.
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MAIN FUNCTIONS OF CIVIL SOCIETY:
1. Full satisfaction of the material and spiritual needs of people; 2. Protection of private areas of people's lives; 3. A lever to restrain political power from absolute domination; 4. Stabilization of social relations and processes.
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6. Development of society
Speaking about the development of society, let us ask ourselves the question: are there laws in human history that determine the behavior of social systems and subsystems - ethnic groups, classes, states and humanity as a whole? Or are historical phenomena unique and inimitable, and, therefore, as S. Frank wrote, there is no place for regularity here?
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THE CONCEPT OF HISTORICAL REGULARITY
The uniqueness of historical phenomena is an undoubted fact. But it is not absolute. Despite all the differences, there is also a similarity, their repetition, which is the historical pattern. There are objectively determined dependencies between the events of history that no free will can change. Such dependencies are the laws of history.
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GLOBALIZATION
Nowadays the process of formation of a fundamentally new type of social reality is unfolding. This process occurs simultaneously in two main directions: 1. the formation of a new type of society in the most developed countries; 2. the formation of a global social organism covering the entire world (globalization).
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"POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY"
The new type of society that replaces the industrial one is called differently: “post-industrial society” (J. Bell, J. Galreith); “super-industrial civilization” (O. Toffler); “information society” (M. McLuhan, E. Masuda); “technotronic society” (Z. Brzezinski). Post-industrial society– a product of the scientific and technological revolution of the 20th and 21st centuries.
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Literature:
Aristotle. Policy. Op.6 in 4 volumes. Vol.4. – M.: Mysl, 1983. Aron R. Democracy and totalitarianism. – M., 1993. P.23. Bransky V.P. Social synergetics as a postmodern philosophy of history / Social Sciences and modernity. 1999, No. 6. Volkov A.I. The human dimension of progress. – M.: Politizdat, 1990. A.S. Carmin, G.G. Bernatsky. Philosophy. - St. Petersburg: DNA Publishing House. 2001. Ch. 7. Social philosophy. Marx K. Letter to P.V. Annenkov, December 28. 1846 // Marx K. Engels F. Works, vol. 27. Momdzhyan K.H. Introduction to social philosophy. – M., 1997. P.303-304. New technocratic wave in the West. – M., 1986.
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LITERATURE:
F.A. Hayek. The road to slavery // Questions of philosophy, 1990. No. 10, 11, !2. Popper K. Open Society and Its Enemies. T.1. – M., 1992. P.220. Ozhegov S.I. and Shvedova N.Yu. Dictionary Russian language. – M., 1992. P.24. Article "society". Plato. State/Plato. Dialogues. – M.: LLC “AST Publishing House”; Kharkov: “Folio”, 2003. P.86-98.
The branch of philosophy that studies society is called social philosophy. The branch of philosophy that studies society is called social philosophy. This philosophical discipline is closely related to the science of sociology, but much older than it. This philosophical discipline is closely related to the science of sociology, but much older than it. Social philosophy studies society speculatively as a kind of integrity. Basically, social philosophy studies issues related to the essence of society and the laws of its development, without focusing on private issues of public life. Social philosophy studies society speculatively as a kind of integrity. Basically, social philosophy studies issues related to the essence of society and the laws of its development, without focusing on private issues of public life.
The most important question social philosophy is the problem of defining society. The most important issue in social philosophy is the problem of defining society. Society is understood in social philosophy extremely broadly as the totality of all forms of joint activity of people. This definition of society covers the entire history of mankind, starting with the separation of people from the animal world. Society is understood in social philosophy extremely broadly as the totality of all forms of joint activity of people. This definition of society covers the entire history of mankind, starting with the separation of people from the animal world. Society is a special sphere of reality, the highest, most complex level of existence, next to biological reality. Society is a special sphere of reality, the highest, most complex level of existence, next to biological reality. The perfection of social reality determines the complexity of studying society. The perfection of social reality determines the complexity of studying society. Each person is included in society and cannot be indifferent or neutral towards the processes taking place in society. Each person is included in society and cannot be indifferent or neutral towards the processes taking place in society. natureSOCIETY
Social reality cannot be experimented with for ethical reasons. Social reality cannot be experimented with for ethical reasons. When studying social reality, it is much more difficult to make informed predictions, since the determination of social processes associated with the subjective sphere is less certain than in the natural world. When studying social reality, it is much more difficult to make informed predictions, since the determination of social processes associated with the subjective sphere is less certain than in the natural world. In society, the very fact of prediction can radically change the course of processes (for example, predicting a financial crisis can cause or prevent this crisis in reality). In society, the very fact of prediction can radically change the course of processes (for example, predicting a financial crisis can cause or prevent this crisis in reality).
All levels of existence preceding the social level are united by the term “nature”. All levels of existence preceding the social level are united by the term “nature”. Nature is the basis for the emergence and functioning of society. It is from the sphere of nature that man takes material for transformation in the process of his activity. Society cannot exist without a natural basis. Nature is the basis for the emergence and functioning of society. It is from the sphere of nature that man takes material for transformation in the process of his activity. Society cannot exist without a natural basis. However, the onslaught of society on nature and its unreasonable and excessive use for the needs of man and society gives rise to ecological problems, which have now become global in nature. However, the onslaught of society on nature and its unreasonable and excessive use for the needs of man and society gives rise to environmental problems that have become global in our time.
Society represents a combination of objective and subjective aspects. Society represents a combination of objective and subjective aspects. Objective (independent of human consciousness) are natural-geographical conditions for the functioning of society, as well as the level of development of productive forces. Objective (independent of human consciousness) are the natural and geographical conditions of the functioning of society, as well as the level of development of the productive forces. Subjective factors include people’s thoughts, desires, aspirations, and aspirations. Subjective factors include people’s thoughts, desires, aspirations, and aspirations. It is possible to understand society only by taking into account both of these types of factors. It is no coincidence that Russian populist thinkers so defended the role of the subjective factor in the life of society and insisted on a subjective method of studying society. It is possible to understand society only by taking into account both of these types of factors. It is no coincidence that Russian populist thinkers so defended the role of the subjective factor in the life of society and insisted on a subjective method of studying society.
Society as a complex system is usually divided into 4 subsystems (spheres): economic, political, social, spiritual. This division was introduced by the American sociologist T. Parsons. Society as a complex system is usually divided into 4 subsystems (spheres): economic, political, social, spiritual. This division was introduced by the American sociologist T. Parsons. The economic sphere is responsible for the processes of providing society with everything necessary and includes the processes of production and exchange (trade and financial sector). The economic sphere is responsible for the processes of providing society with everything necessary and includes the processes of production and exchange (trade and financial sector). The political sphere ensures the management of society and the exercise of power. The political sphere ensures the management of society and the exercise of power. The social sphere is responsible for the relationships between different sectors of society. The social sphere is responsible for the relationships between different sectors of society. The spiritual (cultural) sphere is concerned with spiritual production and the production of meanings and meanings. All spheres of society are interconnected, and crisis phenomena that appear in one sphere negatively affect processes in other spheres. The spiritual (cultural) sphere is concerned with spiritual production and the production of meanings and meanings. All spheres of society are interconnected, and crisis phenomena that appear in one sphere negatively affect processes in other spheres. T. Parsons.
The process of development of society is called history, therefore one of the most important parts social philosophy is the philosophy of history (historiosophy). Unlike history, historiosophy is not concerned with the study of specific historical events, their causes and consequences, but with larger questions: does history have meaning? what is the purpose of the story? What are the driving forces of the historical process? Is history a random set of events or does it have a certain pattern? When considering the historical process philosophically, the inherent in three main directions of philosophy: objective and subjective idealism, as well as in materialism. Philosophy of history
Objective idealists believe that the course of history is determined by an immaterial spiritual principle that does not depend on human consciousness. Objective idealists believe that the course of history is determined by an immaterial spiritual principle that does not depend on human consciousness. A religious version of the objective-idealistic understanding of history is the providentialist philosophy of history of Aurelius Augustine, outlined by him in his work “On the City of God.” A religious version of the objective-idealistic understanding of history is the providentialist philosophy of history of Aurelius Augustine, outlined by him in his work “On the City of God.” All history is the implementation of the Divine plan aimed at the triumph of good. All history is the implementation of the Divine plan aimed at the triumph of good. All earthly states arise in accordance with the will of God, contribute to the implementation of His plans, and then are destroyed by the will of God. The same applies to the fates of outstanding historical figures. All earthly states arise in accordance with the will of God, contribute to the implementation of His plans, and then are destroyed by the will of God. The same applies to the fates of outstanding historical figures. Aurelius Augustine
Each event should be viewed from the final point of view - the end of the world and the Last Judgment. It is the Divine plan that makes the historical process meaningful. Each event should be viewed from the final point of view - the end of the world and the Last Judgment. It is the Divine plan that makes the historical process meaningful. Augustine was one of the first to propose a linear understanding of history, which affirms the uniqueness and originality of each historical event, contrasting this understanding of history with the cyclical ideas dominant in antiquity. Augustine was one of the first to propose a linear understanding of history, which affirms the uniqueness and uniqueness of each historical event, contrasting such an understanding of history with the cyclical ideas dominant in antiquity. Last Judgment
A non-religious version of objective-idealistic ideas about history is the philosophy of history of G. Hegel. A non-religious version of objective-idealistic ideas about history is the philosophy of history of G. Hegel. In his Lectures on the Philosophy of History, Hegel argued that the creator of history is the world spirit, which passes from one people to another. And when the world spirit resides in this people, this people achieves significant success in politics, economics and culture. In his Lectures on the Philosophy of History, Hegel argued that the creator of history is the world spirit, which passes from one people to another. And when the world spirit resides in this people, this people achieves significant success in politics, economics and culture. The world spirit uses peoples, countries and historical figures for its improvement. The world spirit uses peoples, countries and historical figures for its improvement. Hegel lists three historical stages in the march of the world spirit: 1. The Ancient East, 2. Antiquity, 3. Western Europe. Hegel considers progress in history to be the main meaning of history. human freedom. In the East only one is free (pharaoh, despot), in the ancient world only a few were free, but in modern Europe the majority are free. Hegel lists three historical stages in the march of the world spirit: 1. Ancient East, 2. Antiquity, 3. Western Europe. Hegel considers progress in human freedom to be the main meaning of history. In the East only one is free (pharaoh, despot), in the ancient world only a few were free, but in modern Europe the majority are free.
Hegel puts forward the doctrine of the cunning of the world spirit, which uses outstanding personalities for its own purposes, placing in front of them the desire for enrichment, power, and honor as bait. Wanting to achieve this, historical figures fulfill what was destined by the world spirit. So, having seen Napoleon, Hegel himself admitted that he saw the procession of the world spirit on a white horse. Hegel puts forward the doctrine of the cunning of the world spirit, which uses outstanding personalities for its own purposes, placing in front of them the desire for enrichment, power, and honor as bait. Wanting to achieve this, historical figures fulfill what was destined by the world spirit. So, having seen Napoleon, Hegel himself admitted that he saw the procession of the world spirit on a white horse. The real results of the activities of outstanding people are far from what they subjectively strive for. When historical figures fulfill the mission entrusted to them by the world spirit, they become unnecessary and quickly disappear from the historical stage. The real results of the activities of outstanding people are far from what they subjectively strive for. When historical figures fulfill the mission entrusted to them by the world spirit, they become unnecessary and quickly disappear from the historical stage.
Subjective idealism about the course of history Subjective-idealistic ideas about the course of history are characterized by the recognition that history depends on the consciousness of people and is determined by it. Subjective-idealistic ideas about the course of history are characterized by the recognition that history depends on the consciousness of people and is determined by it. One of the forms of subjective idealistic views on the course of history is voluntarism, which declares that the course of history as a whole depends on the will of outstanding historical figures. One of the forms of subjective idealistic views on the course of history is voluntarism, which declares that the course of history as a whole depends on the will of outstanding historical figures. Let's think it would happen Patriotic War 1812, if there had not been the will of Napoleon, and the reforms of Peter 1 without the will of this historical figure. Let's think about whether the Patriotic War of 1812 would have happened if there had not been the will of Napoleon, and the reforms of Peter 1 without the will of this historical figure. It may seem that the will and desires of historical characters are the main driving factor of history. It may seem that the will and desires of historical characters are the main driving factor of history. N.K. Mikhailovsky at the end of the 19th century. put forward the theory of the “hero and the crowd,” according to which history is made by lone heroes who carry the crowd along with them by personal example. N.K. Mikhailovsky at the end of the 19th century. put forward the theory of the “hero and the crowd,” according to which history is made by lone heroes who carry the crowd along with them by personal example. N. K. Mikhailovsky
However, opponents of such voluntarism (for example, G.V. Plekhanov in his work “On the Question of the Development of a Monistic View of History”) argue that no matter how significant the role of outstanding historical figures is, they cannot fundamentally change the course of history, determined by deeper and having an objective nature of laws. However, opponents of such voluntarism (for example, G.V. Plekhanov in his work “On the Question of the Development of a Monistic View of History”) argue that no matter how significant the role of outstanding historical figures is, they cannot fundamentally change the course of history, determined by deeper and having an objective nature of laws. Outstanding figures can only speed up or slow down the course of historical processes, but not change them. Outstanding figures can only speed up or slow down the course of historical processes, but not change them. So, sooner or later Russia would have joined European civilization, even if Peter 1 had not carried out reforms. Success accompanied Peter not so much because of his will and energy, but because he realized the needs that faced Russia at the corresponding stage of its history. So, sooner or later Russia would have joined European civilization, even if Peter 1 had not carried out reforms. Success accompanied Peter not so much because of his will and energy, but because he realized the needs that faced Russia at the corresponding stage of its history. A historical figure who goes against economic and other social laws is doomed to defeat. A historical figure who goes against economic and other social laws is doomed to defeat. G. V. Plekhanov - critic of voluntarism
Here we can raise the question of the role of chance in history. Here we can raise the question of the role of chance in history. There has been a joke among historians for several centuries: “If Cleopatra’s nose had been a little shorter, history would have gone differently.” There has been a joke among historians for several centuries: “If Cleopatra’s nose had been a little shorter, history would have gone differently.” Try to argue or agree with this thesis. Of course, perhaps then Anthony would not have lost the confrontation with Octavian, and would have become the sole ruler of the empire. There would be completely different people at the head of Rome, they would have different advisers, etc. Try to agree or argue with this thesis in a reasoned manner. Of course, perhaps then Anthony would not have lost the confrontation with Octavian, and would have become the sole ruler of the empire. At the head of Rome there would be completely different people, they would have other advisers, etc. But would this change the global course of history? Most likely no. After all, the crisis of slave relations would have begun regardless of the person sitting on the throne, and the Roman Empire would still have begun to decline and would have become vulnerable to the invasion of barbarians and further destruction. But would this change the global course of history? Most likely no. After all, the crisis of slave relations would have begun regardless of the person sitting on the throne, and the Roman Empire would still have begun to decline and would have become vulnerable to the invasion of barbarians and further destruction. Cleopatra
Of particular interest are Tolstoy's historiosophical reflections on the pages of his novel War and Peace. Of particular interest are Tolstoy's historiosophical reflections on the pages of his novel War and Peace. By creating artistic images of historical figures and abstract reasoning, Tolstoy sharply criticizes common ideas about the decisive role of outstanding personalities in the development of the historical process. By creating artistic images of historical figures and abstract reasoning, Tolstoy sharply criticizes common ideas about the decisive role of outstanding personalities in the development of the historical process. History is determined by certain patterns that manifest themselves in the actions of large masses of people - the people. And in Tolstoy’s historiosophical reflections his emphasis on the advantages of the people and historical figures expressing their will is clearly expressed. History is determined by certain patterns that manifest themselves in the actions of large masses of people - the people. And in Tolstoy’s historiosophical reflections his emphasis on the advantages of the people and historical figures expressing their will is clearly expressed. Stills from the film "War and Peace".
L.N. Tolstoy was one of the most prominent opponents of absolutizing the role of chance in history. He criticized, in particular, the opinion of French historians that Napoleon lost the Battle of Borodino due to an accidental runny nose. In this case, Tolstoy ironically, the valet who forgot to give the French emperor waterproof boots should be declared the savior of Russia. L.N. Tolstoy was one of the most prominent opponents of absolutizing the role of chance in history. He criticized, in particular, the opinion of French historians that Napoleon lost the Battle of Borodino due to an accidental runny nose. In this case, Tolstoy ironically, the valet who forgot to give the French emperor waterproof boots should be declared the savior of Russia. A truly great historical figure relies on the course of events and does not seek to change the natural order of events. This is the essence of the contrast between Kutuzov and Napoleon as historical figures. History is dominated by strict necessity and predetermination; there is no place for chance in history.
Another (along with voluntarism) variant of subjective idealistic ideas about history is the doctrine that the course of history is determined by the spread true knowledge, the fight against misconceptions and superstitions. This is exactly how representatives of the Enlightenment, and a little later, many positivists reasoned. Another (along with voluntarism) variant of subjective idealistic ideas about history is the doctrine that the course of history is determined by the dissemination of true knowledge, the fight against misconceptions and superstitions. This is exactly how representatives of the Enlightenment reasoned, and a little later many positivists. The Enlightenment people put forward the proposition “Opinions rule the world.” People make decisions based on their ideas about the world. Accordingly, people's opinions should be made reasonable, enlightened, and people (primarily rulers) will make the right decisions that contribute to the good of society. The Enlightenment people put forward the proposition “Opinions rule the world.” People make decisions based on their ideas about the world. Accordingly, people's opinions should be made reasonable, enlightened, and people (primarily rulers) will make the right decisions that contribute to the good of society. Supporters of this point of view consider the development of knowledge and sciences to be the starting point for the progress of society. Supporters of this point of view consider the development of knowledge and sciences to be the starting point for the progress of society. But, recognizing the certain role of the progress of knowledge, it should be said that the development of science largely depends on circumstances that are objective in nature, in particular on the level of productive forces and on the method of production. But, recognizing the certain role of the progress of knowledge, it should be said that the development of science largely depends on circumstances that are objective in nature, in particular on the level of productive forces and on the method of production.
Materialistic understanding of history The materialistic understanding of history implies that the course of history depends on objective material factors that do not depend on the consciousness of people. The materialistic understanding of history implies that the course of history depends on objective material factors that do not depend on the consciousness of people. Materialism recognizes the existence of unchanging historical laws that determine the development of society. Moreover, society has long been considered a completely special reality, radically different from nature. Materialism recognizes the existence of unchanging historical laws that determine the development of society. Moreover, society has long been considered a completely special reality, radically different from nature. This explained why many philosophers, being materialists when studying nature, remained idealists when considering society. This explained why many philosophers, being materialists when studying nature, remained idealists when considering society.
Geographical determinism comes from the decisive influence of geographical factors on the development of society (climate, presence of rivers, size of territory). Geographical determinism comes from the decisive influence of geographical factors on the development of society (climate, presence of rivers, size of territory). In particular, climate influences the types of occupations that are possible in a given climate. For example, in the steppes, cattle breeding is possible, but not agriculture. Accordingly, nomadic societies are characterized by instability, since they are not tied to a specific piece of land. Societies founded in river valleys, where agriculture is possible, are more stable, since the farmer cannot leave the area he cultivates unattended. In particular, climate influences the types of occupations that are possible in a given climate. For example, in the steppes, cattle breeding is possible, but not agriculture. Accordingly, nomadic societies are characterized by instability, since they are not tied to a specific piece of land. Societies founded in river valleys, where agriculture is possible, are more stable, since the farmer cannot leave the area he cultivates unattended. Elements of geographical determinism are noticeable in the views of S. Montesquieu. Elements of geographical determinism are noticeable in the views of S. Montesquieu. Charles Montesquieu.
Another, more common in modern philosophy, a variety materialistic understanding history is economic determinism, which is most consistently reflected in Marxism. The development of society, according to Marx, is based on objective laws that do not depend on the consciousness of people. Another, more widespread in modern philosophy, type of materialist understanding of history is economic determinism, which is most consistently reflected in Marxism. The development of society, according to Marx, is based on objective laws that do not depend on the consciousness of people. Social existence will always precede social consciousness. Social existence will always precede social consciousness. K. Marx believed that the history of mankind is ultimately determined by the progressive development of productive forces (these include man himself, tools, objects of labor) and the production relations arising on their basis. The development of society is thus determined primarily by economic factors, which are the basis. K. Marx believed that the history of mankind is ultimately determined by the progressive development of productive forces (these include man himself, tools, objects of labor) and the production relations arising on their basis. The development of society is thus determined primarily by economic factors, which are the basis.
Based on the base, a superstructure arises, generally determined by the nature of production. The superstructure included political, legal, cultural, religious and other relations. It was admitted, however, that the superstructure had a slight inverse influence on the base. Based on the base, a superstructure arises, generally determined by the nature of production. The superstructure included political, legal, cultural, religious and other relations. It was admitted, however, that the superstructure had a slight inverse influence on the base. K. Marx postulated that productive forces develop faster than the production relations corresponding to them, which ultimately leads to the destruction of old production relations and the corresponding superstructure to new ones corresponding to the new level of productive forces. K. Marx postulated that productive forces develop faster than the production relations corresponding to them, which ultimately leads to the destruction of old production relations and the corresponding superstructure to new ones corresponding to the new level of productive forces. A type of society based on certain relations of production is called a formation by Marx. There are 5 successive formations: 1. Primitive communal, 2. Slaveholding, 3. Feudal, 4. Capitalist, 5. Communist. As a rule, the transition from an old formation to a new one, K. Marx and his followers believed, is accompanied by a revolution. A type of society based on certain relations of production is called a formation by Marx. There are 5 successive formations: 1. Primitive communal, 2. Slaveholding, 3. Feudal, 4. Capitalist, 5. Communist. As a rule, the transition from an old formation to a new one, K. Marx and his followers believed, is accompanied by a revolution.
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