1. What are the main differences in the concepts of S. Freud and C. Jung regarding the unconscious?

Non-classical philosophy

1. general characteristics Not classical philosophy... 2
2. The philosophy of positivism... 3
2.1. Prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of a positivist-oriented philosophy... 3
2.2. Initial principles and features of the “first positivism” (O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Mill) ... 4
2.3. Machism (empirio-criticism): main ideas and reasons for influence among natural scientists... 6
2.4. Neo-Kantianism... 7
3. Existentialism of S. Kierkegaard... 8
4. Philosophical ideas of A. Schopenhauer... 10
5. Philosophy of life... 12
6. Philosophy of pragmatism... 18
7. Conclusion... 19
8. Questions for self-control... 19
9. Literature... 20

General characteristics of non-classical philosophy

Non-classical philosophy is usually understood as a set of disparate philosophical movements that arose in Western Europe in 19th century outside the boundaries of German classical philosophy. The latter, however, has the most direct relation to the emergence of these movements, for by the very fact of its presence and influence on the minds of its contemporaries, it stimulated a critical attitude towards itself and the desire to overcome it.

Starting from the Renaissance and Modern times and up to the middle of the 19th century. In Western Europe, the tradition of rational philosophy took shape and strengthened, which found its final form in the philosophical systems of representatives of German classical philosophy, primarily I. Kant and G. Hegel.

Real story Articles 18 and 19, however, did not demand this philosophy: reason, elevated to the pinnacle of human values, turned out to be powerless to both explain and prevent the disharmony and chaos that became the content public life. Together with the collapse of Napoleonic France at the beginning of the 19th century. the high ideals of the Age of Enlightenment (reason) were put to shame; In the 30-40s, the class struggle sharply intensified in Germany and France, denoting irreconcilable positions in society. This schism worsened towards the end of the 19th century. and resulted in an attempt to radically restructure the very foundations of economic and social life (Paris Commune in 1871). Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 g. pronounced its verdict on the spiritual values ​​of the era of reason. Progressivist illusions about a future golden age were dispelled.

Another factor that pushed aside German classical philosophy was the revolution in natural science and the industrial revolution. The triumph of chemistry, the creation of the theory of conservation of energy, the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday, the theory of magnetism by Ampere; by the end of the 19th century. the discovery of radioactivity, x-rays, etc. could not go unnoticed public consciousness. All this happened against the backdrop of intensive application of knowledge to modernize production and technical innovations. The world was changing before our eyes: the first railway, the first automobile, the first experiments in aeronautics, the electric telegraph and the light bulb, then the telephone, radio communications and much more. Technology aggressively invaded spiritual life, gaining leading positions in it. The European became involved in this process; science and technology became a more valuable "philosophy" because their use promised new benefits.

Another noteworthy circumstance is the demographic explosion that occurred on the European continent. If in the period from 6 to 1800 the population of Europe could not exceed 180 million. people, then starting from 1800. to 1914 it reached 460 million, that is, it increased by more than 2.5 times. The arrival of the masses in the arena of history simultaneously marked a shift in emphasis in culture. Classical philosophy could no longer enjoy success outside university departments.

The dynamic 19th century, as we see, broke many of the usual ideas of people. Along with bright hopes, there were also anxious forebodings, fears, and fear of the unknown. All this heightened interest in purely human forms lives about which rational philosophy kept silent. The currents that made up the content of non-classical philosophy, namely existentialism, the ideas of A. Schopenhauer, “philosophy of life”, pragmatism and positivism, despite its commitment to science, experience, usefulness. etc. in essence are irrationalistic. Avoidance of reason, its denial as a spiritual value is an essential feature of non-classical philosophy.

Another common feature pluralism(multiplicity) of concepts, ideas, approaches, trends, a kind of “discord” among philosophers. The meaning of what is happening can only be understood if you hear everyone at once, and not each of them separately.

Non-classical philosophy signified greater attention to man, an attempt to see him in all the complexity of his multifaceted nature. This is its humanistic content.

2. Philosophy of positivism
2.1. Prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of a positivist-oriented philosophy

In classical philosophy, the cult of reason arose and became established. Thinkers of this era came to a broad interpretation of reason, suggesting that nature, history, human activity driven by its inherent “reasonableness.” Reason was considered as a synonym for regularity, the expediency of nature and the upward movement of history towards a certain “reasonable goal”, as the highest judge over existing things, as the bearer of “genuine” truth and the guarantor of “higher” morality. A concentrated and logically complete version of philosophical rationalism of the classical type is Hegelian panlogism: according to Hegel, being is determined by the development of the Absolute Idea (“divine reason”). The “cunning of reason,” according to Hegel, must ultimately overcome the “inertness” of nature and the randomness of history.

Modern philosophers and scientists believed in the improvement of the mind through the progress of science. Knowledge and rational cognition were proclaimed as a decisive force capable of solving all problems arising before man and humanity. In order to fulfill the grandiose tasks assigned to it, knowledge, in their opinion, must be clear, distinct, demonstrative, overcoming doubts. Social ideals of the Enlightenment requiring rational, science-based transformation public relations according to the norms of truth and justice, strengthened this attitude towards science.

But by the middle of the 19th century, the veil of illusions began to dissipate: science, having turned into a specialized highly professional activity, giving rise to powerful technology, did not live up to the naive expectations placed on it. Become a one-stop shop social progress she failed. Intellectuals disappointed by this explained this by the presence of a metaphysical component in science, which makes it related to religion. It seemed to them that scientific abstractions were as divorced from reality as religious dogmas, that scientific disputes were as incomprehensible and scholastic as theological disputes, that science’s claims to objectivity were justified only from the point of view of scientists who were oblivious to their own bias.

Classical philosophy, philosophical systems, are based on a speculative type of knowledge construction, i.e. on deducing it without resorting to practice, with the help of reflection it turned out to be unable to solve philosophical problems, put forward by the development of science in the 19th century.

In the first half of the 19th century. experimental-mathematical science, which emerged in the 17th century, has achieved enormous success, and its role in the development of society is increasing.

Having accumulated a sufficiently large amount of empirical material, natural science began to theoretically generalize this material. It is realized that the main body of knowledge about the world necessary in practical activities is formed in the sciences of the natural scientific cycle. The process of transforming natural philosophy into theoretical natural science begins.

Formation of the disciplinary structure of science, institutional professionalization scientific activity made the task of understanding the essence scientifically urgent cognitive activity, critical assessment of the premises and procedures of scientific activity taking place in different cognitive and sociocultural conditions; meanings and roles of ideological and philosophical ideas and representations in the development of scientific research.

There is an awareness of the insufficiency and limitations of speculative reasoning (coming from the pure power of the mind) of classical natural philosophy and metaphysics, which often replaced real connections with fictitious ones. This gave rise to a certain group of thinkers to express the idea that the era of metaphysics had ended, and the era of positive knowledge had begun, the era positive philosophy. Science sought to abandon the imposition of a priori schemes and hypotheses divorced from reality, since they were already having an inhibitory effect on the development of natural science. Natural philosophy as the “science of sciences” is coming to an end.

2.2. Initial principles and features of the “first positivism” (O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Mill)

As a result of the collapse of natural philosophy, a special direction in the development of philosophical thought of the 19th century was formed. - positivism(from Latin positivus - positive). The main ideas of this direction are presented for the first time in the works Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857), Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903),John Stuart Mill(1806 - 1873). Positivism claimed to be a fundamentally new, “non-metaphysical” (positive) philosophy, built in the likeness of the empirical sciences and being their methodology. Arguing that science is still not scientific enough, there are too many speculative components in it, positivism set the task of “cleansing” it of metaphysics.

In the 40s of the 19th century Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism, criticized Hegelian metaphysics (over-experience, speculation) historical process and formulated the task of social cognition: to make the doctrine of society ("sociology" - the term was first introduced by O. Comte) the same "positive", "positive" science as the natural sciences - mathematics, mechanics - using "exact", mathematical - experimental methods and without any super-experimental hypotheses.

O. Kant justified the transition from metaphysics to positive knowledge by analyzing the various stages that humanity goes through in its quest to understand the world, in its mental development. From his point of view, the “human mind,” by virtue of its nature, in each of its studies uses three methods of thinking, the nature of which is significantly different and even directly opposite: theological, metaphysical, positive. Consequently, there are three historical stages in the development of knowledge and three general systems of views on the world.

At the theological stage spiritual development man strives to explain all phenomena by the intervention of supernatural forces, understood by analogy with himself: gods, spirits, souls, angels, heroes...

Metaphysical research also strives to achieve exhaustive absolute knowledge of the world, but only through reference to various invented primary essences and first causes, supposedly hiding behind the world of phenomena, behind everything that we perceive in experience. Thus, Thales saw the root cause in water, Anaximander - apeirone, Heraclitus - fire, Plato - the idea, Descartes - substance, Leibniz - the monad, Hegel - the absolute spirit, materialists - matter, etc.

Metaphysical thinking, according to Comte, contributes to the fact that thought acquires greater breadth and imperceptibly prepares for true scientific work. But the fundamental mistake of this thinking is that, like theological thinking, it seeks to know the absolute principles and causes of everything. But this is impossible, we do not have the means to go beyond experience. And since this is impossible, metaphysics indulges in unbridled and fruitless fantasies. Humanity must abandon these fruitless and hopeless attempts to understand the absolute nature and essence of all things (Comte believed that he considered the search for so-called causes, both primary and final, absolutely unacceptable and meaningless) and rush along the path of accumulating positive knowledge obtained by private sciences.

At the third, positive stage of knowledge, Comte argued, “the human mind recognizes the impossibility of acquiring absolute knowledge, abandons the investigation of the origin and purpose of the universe and knowledge of the internal causes of phenomena in order to engage ... in the discovery of their laws, that is, the unchanging relations of sequence and the similarity of phenomena" (without analyzing the question of their essence and nature). Science and its laws can only answer “how,” but not “why,” as Comte believed.

In epistemological terms, this means that science must limit itself to describing the external aspects of objects, their phenomena and discard speculation as a means of obtaining knowledge and metaphysics as a doctrine of essence. Sciences must observe and describe what is revealed in experience, and formulate empirical laws. These laws serve to describe facts and are significant only for phenomena (phenomenon) (Comte denies the concepts of “essence”, “causality”, considering them relics of pre-scientific ideas and replacing them with the idea of ​​​​a constant sequence of phenomena). “We do not know either the essence or even the actual way of occurrence of a single fact: we know only the relations of sequence or similarity of facts to each other,” asserted J. Mile. But this knowledge is relative, and not absolute, since experience does not have any final boundaries, but can expand indefinitely.

The focus of the positivists' attention was primarily on problems associated with the study of inductive-logical and psychological procedures of experimental cognition.

Positivism declared problems, statements, concepts that could neither be resolved nor verified through experience to be false or meaningless. A researcher can “come up with only such hypotheses, O. Comte believed, which by their very nature allowed at least more or less remote, but always obviously inevitable positive verification.

Hence the denial of the cognitive value of traditional philosophical (metaphysical) research and statements. What are the tasks philosophy are the systematization and generalization of specifically scientific empirical knowledge and the search for a universal method of cognition. True, in the task of such a generalization, Comte also sees something specific, characteristic only of philosophy - the study of connections and relationships between specific sciences.

Comte proposes objective principles for the first time classification of sciences depending on their subject and content. (O. Comte rejects the principles of classification of sciences proposed by F. Bacon. Bacon classified sciences depending on various human cognitive abilities - reason, memory, imagination). In Comte's classification system, the following sciences are distinguished - mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiology, social physics (sociology), morality, which are located in this system according to the principle of movement from simple to complex, from abstract to concrete, from ancient to new. G. Spencer develops this classification system, distinguishing abstract (logic and mathematics), abstract-concrete (mechanics, physics, chemistry) and concrete sciences (astronomy, geology, biology, psychology, sociology, etc.). Abstract sciences study the forms in which phenomena appear before the observer, and abstract - concrete - study the phenomena themselves in their elements and as a whole.

At this time, the basic ideas of the positivist direction in philosophy were laid down. These initial ideas include:

full elimination(elimination of) traditional philosophical problems that are insoluble due to the limitations human mind;

search universal method obtaining reliable knowledge and universal language Sciences;

epistemological phenomenalism– reduction of scientific knowledge to a set of sensitive data and complete elimination of the “unobservable” from science;

methodological empiricism– the desire to decide the fate of theoretical knowledge based on the results of its experimental testing;

descriptivism- reduction of all functions of science to description, but not explanation.

If natural philosophical concepts contrasted philosophy as a “science of sciences” with special sciences, then positivism contrasted science with philosophy. And since such a philosophy does not deal with metaphysical worldview problems, it rejects both materialism and idealism.

Positivism actually remained within the framework of the classical ideal of rationality according to which scientific knowledge ideologically and morally “neutral”: scientific – “positive” – knowledge, according to the positivist program, should be freed from any ideological and value interpretation, and all “metaphysics” should be abolished and replaced either by special sciences (“science is philosophy in itself” ), either a generalized and “economic” image of empirical knowledge, or a doctrine of the relationship between the sciences of language, etc.

2..3. Machism (empirio-criticism): main ideas and reasons for influence among natural scientists

In the second half of the 19th century. "first positivism" gives way to a new historical form of positivism - empirio-criticism or Machism. Its most famous representatives are: Ernest Mach (1838 - 1916), Richard Avenarius(1843 - 1896).

Philosophers representing this trend in positivism strive to “cleanse” natural science knowledge from the “residues” of speculative reflections and strengthen epistemological phenomenalism and methodological empiricism.

The crisis of the theory of knowledge of classical philosophy, the helplessness of the concept of a mirror reflection of reality, the denial of the activity of the subject in the formation of the object of knowledge, the possibility of the existence of a set theoretical models, relating to the same area of ​​phenomena, their rapid change by the end of the 19th century. gave grounds to the Machians to assert that philosophy should turn into an activity that analyzes the features of knowledge. Their attention was focused on the analysis of sensations, sensory experience as such. They affirmed, continuing the traditions of the “first” positivism, the ideal of “purely descriptive” science and rejected its explanatory part, considering it metaphysical. At the same time, the Machians demanded the abandonment of the concept of causality, necessity, substance, etc., based on the phenomenological principle of defining concepts through observable data.

Only experience as the totality of everything “directly observable” was recognized as the “only existing” one. The Machians called this “directly observable” “elements of the world,” supposedly neutral with respect to matter and consciousness. They strive to reduce the content scientific concepts to some “indisputable primary” material of knowledge, and concepts in relation to which such a reaction turns out to be impossible are discarded as “empty functions”. Science should investigate only sensations. (the object of science, according to Ari Poincaré, is not things, but “stable groups of sensations” and the relationships that arise between them. To express them, mathematics creates its own symbolic language. A reality independent of consciousness is not only inaccessible, but also unthinkable) The subject of physics is the analysis of sensations, - wrote E. Mach. Theoretical concepts, laws, formulas are devoid of objective content; they only serve as a sign to designate a set of sensory signs. (the Machians perceived the atom and molecules only as “economical” symbols for describing physicochemical experience) Therefore, in order to “economize thinking,” it is necessary to strive to minimize theoretical means.

New discoveries in science strengthen the devaluation of the mechanistic picture of the world, mechanism as a universal approach to all natural processes and phenomena. A significant contribution to this process is made by biology, Charles Darwin’s formulation of the theory of evolution and biological systems. According to this theory, all the diversity of the world gradually developed from a common ancestor. The reason for this development is the struggle for the existence and survival of the strongest, the fittest.

The influence of Machism intensified at the end of the 19th century, when new discoveries in physics required a revision of the foundations of scientific knowledge. “In essence,” wrote M. Planck, “this is a kind of reaction against those bold expectations that were associated several decades ago with a special mechanistic view of nature... The philosophical precipitate of the inevitable sobering up was Mach’s positivism.” In the conditions of the breakdown of physical concepts and the collapse of metaphysical and mechanistic ideas about the world and knowledge, the philosophical reflections of Mach and Avenarius seemed to empiricist naturalists to be a suitable form of resolving the difficulties that arose in physics. The American historian of science D. Holton, in particular, writes that even Mach’s opponents did not suspect how much they themselves were imbued with his ideas, “sucking them in with their mother’s milk.”

On a number of epistemological issues, the famous French mathematician and physicist adhered to empirio-criticism Henri Poincaré (1854 - 1912).

In the book “The Value of Science” (1905) he formulates known position that progress in science is endangering the most stable principles - even those principles that were considered basic. It turns out that the speed of light does not depend on the speed of the light source. Newton's third law is compromised by the fact that the energy emitted by a radio transmitter has a rest mass, and there is no equivalence between action and reaction... Euclidean geometry is not the only possible geometric system. As a result, there was a crisis in mathematical physics at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries.

This gave grounds to assert that the laws of nature should be understood as conventions, that is, conditionally accepted provisions. It was this concept of law as a conditionally accepted provision, a convention, that became the leading concept of Poincaré’s epistemological concept, called “conventionalism.” “These conventions are the products of the free activity of our spirit, which in this area does not know any obstacles. Here he can affirm, since he also prescribes...”

Supporters of the philosophy of Machism extended conventionalism from the sphere of mathematics and logic to the whole of science.

1

If pre-classical and classical philosophy is best considered by stages of development, then in non-classical, and then in post-non-classical philosophy, it is more convenient and more visual to highlight directions and concepts. However, such an approach to non-classical and post-non-classical philosophy is the only possible, since this is exactly how the development of philosophy at this stage occurred in the directions and within the framework of individual concepts. The mutual influence of philosophy and science was also of decisive importance

V.S. Stepin identifies three stages in the development of philosophical and methodological reflection on science: centered on ontological issues (classics), shifting the emphasis to the analysis of procedures and operations for constructing knowledge (non-classics) and emphasizing the problems of sociocultural determination of science (post-non-classics). They correspond to three types of scientific rationality. Classical science assumes that the subject is distanced from the object, as if cognizing the world from the outside, and considered the elimination from explanation and description of everything that relates to the subject and means of activity to be a condition for objectively true knowledge (V.S. Stepin. Science / NVF, Vol. III, p. 27).

Within the framework of classical philosophy (mainly the 17th-19th centuries), metaphysics, dialectics, classical rationalism and determinism, ideas about the interaction of subject and object developed. The metaphysics of the New Age has become a metaphysics of knowledge based on rationalism and empiricism, and not a metaphysics of being as in previous eras. In the 17th century, great philosophers were also great natural scientists; classical mechanics and mathematics had a particularly strong influence on the development of metaphysics at this time. Traditional classical philosophy claimed to be precisely metaphysics, that is, knowledge deeper than the most fundamental natural sciences (“physical”, in the very in a broad sense this term) theory. She, like the ancient philosophers, placed “logic” above “physics”, theoretical truth above practical achievement. Hegelian philosophy was already a “philosophy of transition”, a “philosophy of compromise”, which could now be criticized both “from the left” (for example, for excessive commitment to creating universal explanatory systems) and “from the right” (for example, for recognizing relative truth, which, of course, means nothing more than the imperfection of truth) (Zotov A.F. Modern western philosophy, pp. 14-15).

The crisis of the basic concepts and methods of classical philosophy led to its transition to non-classical philosophy, the origins of which are Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, the philosophy of life, the schools of neo-Kantianism, and positivism. The development of criticism of Hegel's philosophical system brought to the forefront in philosophy the study of human interpretation of the universe, the identification of the connection between nature and the language that describes it, so that such a philosophy can only be an open system. In addition, classical philosophy conveyed to non-classical philosophy many fundamental ideas contained in the philosophical systems of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, in the concepts of representatives of the first stage of positivism and many others.

Classical philosophy and science deal with simple systems, when the total properties of the parts exhaustively determine the properties of the whole. A part inside the whole and outside the whole has the same properties, connections between elements are subject to Laplace causality, space and time appear as something external to such systems, the states of their motion do not in any way affect the characteristics of space and time. It is not difficult to discover that all these categorical meanings constituted a kind of matrix for describing mechanical systems. It is significant that the image of a clock - a simple mechanical system - was dominant in the science of the 17th-18th centuries. and even the first half of the 19th century. The world is structured like a clock that God once wound, and then it goes according to the laws of mechanics. The categorical grid for describing small systems was sanctioned by the philosophy of mechanism as philosophical foundations science of this era. But when moving to the study of large systems, the categorical apparatus developed on the basis of classical mechanics becomes inadequate and requires serious adjustments (V.S. Stepin, Self-developing systems, Rostov-on-Don, 2003, pp. 42-43).

Traditionally, the main directions of non-classical philosophy are considered to be: phenomenology, analytical philosophy, fundamental ontology, the main stages of positivism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries (empirio-criticism, neo-positivism, post-positivism), critical rationalism, existentialism, personalism, pragmatism, psychoanalysis, hermeneutics. Neo-Kantianism, neorealism, neorationalism, and some cultural and religious movements had a fundamental influence on its development.

Non-classical philosophy views the cognizing mind not as distant from the world and comprehending it from the outside, but as located inside the world. Reason from this point of view is not absolutely sovereign and without presuppositions. It is rooted in the human lifeworld. Between him and being there is a mediating link that distinguishes, but at the same time connects them. Such a link, according to J. Habermas, is human activity and language. Moreover, language here should be understood in a broad sense, including not only natural language, but also all types of cultural languages, all varieties of socio-codes that consolidate and transmit socio-historical experience.

IN non-classical approach the key issue becomes the issue of sociocultural conditioning philosophical knowledge. It leads to a new understanding of the subject and functions of philosophy. The desire of philosophy to find the ultimate foundations of knowledge and activity in classical period expressed in the creation of relatively closed philosophical systems. Each of them presented its principles as absolute truths, the last foundations of existence. On the basis of these principles, a system of ideas about the world was created, including an understanding of nature, man, human cognition, social life and ideals social order. The development of philosophy was carried out through the competitive struggle of such systems, their mutual criticism and the generation of new systems.

The non-classical approach rejects the very possibility of creating the last and absolutely true system of philosophical knowledge. Recognition of the sociocultural conditionality of any type of knowledge presupposes that philosophy at each stage of its history is determined by the peculiarities of the culture of its era, which determines certain possibilities (often unconscious) and limitations of philosophical search. These possibilities and boundaries can be pushed to new historical era, but there will appear new determinants of philosophical creativity, and therefore its new possibilities and limitations (Stepin V.S., Science / NFE, T. III, pp. 198-199).

Non-classical philosophy developed much more unpredictably and ramified than classical philosophy, being closely connected with randomness, stochastic processes, and bifurcations. Special meaning here the epistemological principle, aphoristically expressed by F. Nietzsche, acquires: “all that is most important is born in spite of” (Bachelard G., New rationalism, With. 32). The categorical structure of knowledge of non-classical philosophy became four-dimensional, including the following irreducible spheres: ontological, epistemological, axiological, praxeological.

Bibliographic link

Danilova V.S., Kozhevnikov N.N. MAIN DIRECTIONS OF NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY (TEACHING MANUAL) // International Journal of Experimental Education. – 2015. – No. 3-2. – P. 230-231;
URL: http://expeducation.ru/ru/article/view?id=6816 (access date: 01/04/2020). We bring to your attention magazines published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural Sciences"

2. Philosophy of positivism

2.1. Prerequisites and conditions for the emergence of a positivist-oriented philosophy

2.2. Initial principles and features of “first positivism” (O. Comte, G. Spencer, J. Mill)

2.3. Machism (empirio-criticism): main ideas and reasons for influence among natural scientists

2.4. Neo-Kantianism

3. Existentialism of S. Kierkegaard

4. Philosophical ideas of A. Schopenhauer

5. Philosophy of life

6. Philosophy of pragmatism

7. Conclusion

1. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY

Non-classical philosophy is usually understood as a set of disparate philosophical movements that arose in Western Europe in the 19th century. outside the boundaries of German classical philosophy. The latter, however, has the most direct relation to the emergence of these movements, for by the very fact of its presence and influence on the minds of its contemporaries, it stimulated a critical attitude towards itself and the desire to overcome it.

Starting from the Renaissance and Modern times and up to the middle of the 19th century. In Western Europe, the tradition of rational philosophy took shape and strengthened, which found its final form in the philosophical systems of representatives of German classical philosophy, primarily I. Kant and G. Hegel.

The real history of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, did not require this philosophy: reason, elevated to the pinnacle of human values, turned out to be powerless to both explain and prevent the disharmony and chaos that became the content of public life. Together with the collapse of Napoleonic France at the beginning of the 19th century.

Another factor that pushed aside German classical philosophy was the revolution in natural science and the industrial revolution.

The triumph of chemistry, the creation of the theory of conservation of energy, the discovery of electromagnetic induction by Faraday, the theory of magnetism by Ampere;

by the end of the 19th century. the discovery of radioactivity, X-rays, etc. could not go unnoticed by the public consciousness. All this happened against the backdrop of intensive application of knowledge to modernize production and technical innovations. The world was changing before our eyes: the first railway, the first automobile, the first experiments in aeronautics, the electric telegraph and the light bulb, then the telephone, radio communications and much more. Technology aggressively invaded spiritual life, gaining leading positions in it. The European became involved in this process; science and technology became a more valuable “philosophy” because their use promised new benefits.

Another noteworthy circumstance is the demographic explosion that occurred on the European continent.

If in the period from 6 to 1800 the population of Europe could not exceed 180 million. people, then starting from 1800. to 1914 it reached 460 million, that is, it increased by more than 2.5 times.

Non-classical philosophy of the 19th century appeared as a result of understanding the achievements of classical German philosophy. Representatives of non-classical philosophy, on the one hand, were deeply influenced by the ideas of German classical philosophy, and on the other hand, they tried to criticize these concepts, go beyond their limits and achieve a new view of the world.

So, materialist philosophy Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels is an attempt to revise the global system of objective idealism of G. W. F. Hegel. The basis of the philosophy of Marxism, just like Hegel’s, is dialectics. However, unlike Hegel's objective idealism, the philosophy of Marx and Engels is materialism.

Marxist philosophy was created jointly by two German scientists Karl Marx (1818 - 1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895) in the second half of the 19th century. The main works of Marxism are: “Capital” by K. Marx, “German Ideology” by K. Marx and F. Engels, “Dialectics of Nature” by F. Engels.

Marxist theory consists of two large sections: dialectical materialism and historical materialism. It is usually believed that historical materialism is part of dialectical materialism, which formulates the general laws of existence and development of the world.

The main provisions of dialectical materialism are as follows:

• — being determines consciousness
• - consciousness is only the property of matter to reflect itself
• - matter is eternal and infinite, it develops according to the laws of dialectics (the unity and struggle of opposites, the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, the negation of negation)

Within the framework of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels create a large-scale theory of the development of society. The basis human life, in accordance with materialist premises, Marx and Engels consider practical activities for the production and distribution of goods (that is, everything that can satisfy human needs). Therefore, basically social structure economic relations always lie. They form the basis of society. All other relations (as a result of the development of which are formed: family, culture, religion, state, etc.) Marx and Engels call the superstructure, indicating their dependence on the economy.

The base and superstructure constitute a historically specific type of society, which Marx and Engels call a socio-economic formation. In total, Marxism distinguishes five main formations, each of which is distinguished by a special type of production, which consists of the level of development of the productive forces and the nature of production relations (that is, the relations into which people enter in the production process). Highlight:

• 1. Primitive communal system (low level of development of productive forces, the beginnings of production relations)
• 2. Slave-owning formation (the basis of production is the relationship between slave and master)
• 3. Feudal formation (production relations between the feudal lord and the serf)
• 4. Capitalist formation (basic production relations between the bourgeoisie and the wage worker)
• 5. Communism (free union of individuals)

Society develops, according to Marx, according to the same laws of dialectics that were formulated by Hegel to describe the self-development of the absolute idea. However, Marx filled Hegel's dialectic with a completely different, social, content. The source of the development of society, in his opinion, is contradictions. First of all, this concerns the contradiction between productive forces and production relations. Indeed, the productive forces of society are growing. Man gradually gains the opportunity to produce more goods, spending less labor on it: manual labor is equipped with tools, the use of draft animals and the forces of nature begins, complex mechanisms are invented and built, human labor is replaced by the work of robots and automata. Craft workshops give way to manufactories, which then give way to factories and factories. However, the development of the productive forces of society must correspond to the development of production relations. When it lags behind, a conflict is formed in society, the resolution of which is a leap to a new stage of development.

Another significant area of ​​non-classical philosophy was positivism. The founder of positivism is considered to be the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857). Other representatives of positivism are John Mill (1806 - 1873) and Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903).

Comte's philosophy, like Marxism, was an attempt to rethink Hegelian dialectics. While maintaining the principle of historicism, Comte abandoned idealism and rationalism. He attempted to place philosophy on a solid scientific basis, suggesting that true knowledge could only be obtained from empirically verified data.

Reflecting on the development of human culture, Comte derived the so-called “law of three stages.” According to this law, human thinking successively passes through three stages of development: theological (everything is explained by the gods), metaphysical (everything is derived from intelligible, ideal entities) and positive (knowledge is achieved by empirical methods). The positive stage corresponds to the emergence and development of science in modern times. Consequently, it is positive (scientific) knowledge that is reliable.

Philosophy, in this case, must abandon its claim to the status of “superscience” or “queen of sciences.” The function of philosophy in the structure of positive knowledge, according to Comte, is only a generalization of these sciences.

English thinker Herbert Spencer continued the development of the ideas of positivism. He tried to combine the traditions of English empiricism and the philosophy of Immanuel Kant. Spencer defended the descriptive nature of science. Science can only know the similarities and differences between the sensory. The main idea of ​​Spencer's positivism is the concept of evolution. perceptions, but it is not able to penetrate into the essence of phenomena.

Tracing this process in all phenomena of nature and society, Spencer reduces it to the simplest movement of the smallest particles, prone to combination and dispersion.

As a result of the criticism of rationalism of the 18th century, irrationalism arises. Representatives of this philosophical school denied the existence of logical connections in nature and the possibility of perceiving the world as an integral, logical system.

A famous representative of irrational philosophy was German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer(1788 - 1860). His philosophy of pessimism did not attract the attention of readers and thinkers for a long time. However, pessimism had a significant influence on subsequent philosophical movements, such as the philosophy of life or Russian religious philosophy.

Schopenhauer opposed classical rationalism, rejecting the ideas of progress and a reasonable structure of the world. Rational knowledge he opposed mystical intuition.

Developing the Kantian concept of the thing in itself, Schopenhauer argued that the division into subject and object in the process of cognition is only a kind of external appearance, an element of the world as a representation (phenomenon). The unknowable essence of the world underlying it is will. Will is understood by Schopenhauer as a certain reality, inaccessible to knowledge(similar to the concept of a thing in itself in the philosophy of I. Kant). A single will is the source of all forces existing in the world. It manifests itself in many different objectifications. One of the objectifications of will is a person who, as a result, has an individual will. Schopenhauer describes this will as the will to live.

The will must always be in a state of striving, for this is its essence. Moreover, the will does not have any ultimate goal, to which one should strive. As a result, the will cannot achieve any satisfaction from what it has achieved. Regarding a person, this situation means the impossibility of achieving happiness.

The only way to avoid suffering is the destruction of the individual will and exit into oblivion. This is possible, according to Schopenhauer, through feelings of justice and compassion.

Another representative of the irrational philosophy of the 19th century was the German thinker Friedrich Nietzsche(1844 – 1900). Developing the ideas of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche introduces the concept of the will to power as a supra-individual cosmic principle, the driving force of world development. The will to power is manifested in the behavior of every person. This is the desire for expansion, capture, possession. Even when a person strives for liberation from power, Nietzsche sees in this the will to power.

The will to power contributed to the development of the monkey and its transformation into a man. It also contributes to overcoming the human in man himself and the formation of a superman. Superman is the next level of development. His will and actions are beyond the boundaries of good and evil and cannot be assessed using morality and law.

However, one should not associate the Nietzschean concept of the superman with the later constructions of Nazi ideology. The superman is not a representative of any race, nationality, nation or social class. He is lonely by nature, and seems to be excluded from society. His actions set the norms of human society as the actions of heroes of myths and prophets.

The desire to identify the irrational forces that control natural and social processes was characteristic not only of the philosophy of the 19th century, but also of the science of that time. Within the framework of economics, Karl Marx forms an idea of ​​global social and economic processes operating “above” the totality of individual wills of members of society.

The theory of psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud became an expression of the same trends in psychology. Freud, an Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist, refuted the rationalists' ideas about the integrity of the human psyche. Freud described the inner world of man as a field of struggle between various mental authorities: “ I», « Super-ego" And " It».

In Freud's theory, consciousness, that is, that conscious part of mental activity that is associated with the human personality, is designated as “I”. In turn, it is opposed to “It” - the unconscious force that underlies mental activity as such. “It” is the totality of a person’s drives, as well as the source of libido - mental energy of a sexual nature. “It” is also opposed to the “Super-ego,” a set of social norms acquired by a person as a result of living in society.

According to Freud, the basis of human behavior is unconscious drives, irrational in nature. These drives are suppressed by social norms and the control of human consciousness, which leads to conflict between various mental authorities. Suppression of drives, on the one hand, makes possible such a process as sublimation - the use of sexual energy released as a result of suppression of drives for other purposes (art, science, sports, etc.). However, on the other hand, it is the suppression of drives that, according to Freud, is the cause of mental illnesses of various kinds.

General characteristics and main directions of non-classical philosophy. Period in the history of Western European philosophy from mid-19th Until the middle of the 20th century, it was customary to call it non-classical. The development of philosophical ideas of this time took place in general context comprehension and reinterpretation of the achievements of the classics. The construction of any philosophical system was carried out either based on the conceptual ideas of the previous classical tradition, or was based on their total negation and rejection, but one way or another, a new - non-classical - type of philosophizing was formed as a result of the development, deepening and addition of the classical philosophical systems of Kant, Fichte , Schelling, Hegel.

The noted trends make it possible to draw a typology of all philosophical trends of the non-classical period according to the principle of acceptance or non-acceptance of the conceptual foundations of classical philosophy. Thus, all areas of non-classical philosophy can be divided into two large groups:

Directions that support general principles rationalist philosophy. This group can include all neoclassical schools, such as neo-Kantianism (K. Fischer, O. Liebmann, F. Lange and others - in the 19th century, the Marburg and Baden schools of neo-Kantianism in the 20th century), neo-Heglianism (F. Bradley, R. Collingwood, A. Kozhev, etc.), Marxism (K. Marx, F. Engels) and neo-Marxism (G. Marcuse, T. Adorno, J. Habermas, etc.), as well as directions, the conceptual foundations of which are generally built on traditional-classical understanding of rationality, such as structuralism (C. Lévi-Strauss), positivism (O. Comte, G. Speneser, E. Mach, R. Avenarius), neopositivism (M. Schlick, R. Carnap, B. Russell) and analytical philosophy(L. Wittgenstein, D. Moore, D. Austin), phenomenology (E. Husserl, M. Heidegger).

Directions of an irrationalistic nature: “philosophy of life” (F. Nietzsche, W. Dilthey, G. Simmel, O. Spengler), psychoanalysis (Z. Freud, K. Jung), existentialism (S. Kierkegaard, K. Jaspers, J. Sartre, A. Camus).

Within the framework of non-classical philosophy, an attempt is made to revise and supplement previous (classical) ideas about rationality, based on the principles of unity and integrity of the cognizing subject and the absolute certainty of the existence of the objective world. The main attention of philosophers is directed to the sphere of the subjective, the understanding of which also significantly expands previous ideas about man: if in classical philosophy thinking (in a verbal, discursive form, ideally logical thinking) was considered the dominant, specific characteristic of the subject, then in this period philosophers turn to understanding such manifestations of subjectivity that were usually considered secondary, or even completely excluded from the sphere of consciousness (will, intuition, unconscious, etc.). In general, we can say that the main problem of non-classical philosophy is the problem of consciousness. The objectivist attitude, questioned by Descartes and Kant, in the non-classical period finally loses confidence on the part of the majority of philosophers, and it is in consciousness that the only undoubted basis for reliable knowledge is found. The interpretations of consciousness presented in the teachings of this period demonstrate a wide variety of views on the nature of this phenomenon.

The main representatives of non-classical philosophy. Of the representatives of irrationalist movements, special mention should be made of such philosophers as F. Nietzsche and S. Kierkegaard. Philosophical trends in which the world and man are understood on the basis of a primal essence that is foreign to reason and inaccessible to it are generally considered irrational. The term “irrationalism” unites various philosophical systems, the authors of which put forward as a fundamental principle something that lies beyond the limits of reason: will, intuition, instinct, contemplation, insight, etc.

The entire European culture, starting with Socrates, instills false values ​​and imposes false meanings on people. From Nietzsche’s point of view, man forgot the unity and fullness of life, abandoning himself to the search and justification of entities alien to his nature - knowledge, morality, religion, thereby turning life’s beauty and element into something that should be assessed, measured, limited. Everyday life is strictly regulated, there are fewer and fewer opportunities for personal expression, and mediocrity increasingly triumphs. Consciousness, thus, deceives itself, focusing on the prejudices of reason, and the history of philosophy from Socrates to Hegel “turns out to be the history of man’s long subjugation, as well as the history of the arguments that man invented to justify his subjugation.” (Deleuze J. Nietzsche. - St. Petersburg, 1997, p. 34) “Life” in its completeness, integrity, immediacy is opposed to the dimensionality and formality of “being” (the subject of study of rationalistic metaphysics), it is an “eternal becoming” devoid of attributes, in which there is no purpose and which cannot be assessed as true or false, good or evil, bad or good. Becoming cannot be the subject of scientific research, since its essence is always deeper than we can express through language.

That is why science, knowledge, morality, etc. distort life and impose false values ​​on the consciousness. Religion plays a particularly negative role in this process, sharp criticism of which is characteristic of all of Nietzsche’s works.

The philosopher seeks to present all processes of physical and spiritual life as various modifications of the action of the will to power. The will to power is not the lust for domination, this is its understanding, most common in modern culture, characteristic of the psychology of slavery. The will to power expresses the triumph of strength and creativity as integral characteristics of life. In other words, the essence of life is the embodiment of will, manifested in the active, active, creative - affirming - nature of its constituent forces. The oblivion of life has led to the fact that modern norms and stereotypes have replaced true values, and the history of European culture demonstrates the triumph of negative, denying force, resulting in the formation of a society that cultivates the ideals of slavery, weakness, illness instead of the beauty, strength and health inherent in life. New philosophy And new person are called upon to rehabilitate meanings consigned to oblivion, overcome the ambitions of reason and reason and try to open a world for humanity “beyond good and evil”: “God is dead, and I want - let the superman live.”

In contrast to Hegel's objective dialectic, Kierkegaard creates a subjective or existential dialectic, which traces the process of the formation of personality in its gradual ascent to God. The concept of “existence” (from the Latin “existence” - existence), first proposed by Kierkegaard, is accepted to designate the singularity, uniqueness and specificity of the individual’s being, as opposed to the concept of “essence” (from the Latin “essence” - essence), relating to the world of things and phenomena. In contrast to classical (primarily Hegelian) panlogism, which dissolves being in thinking and is confident that being, down to the smallest detail, is permeable to thought and fits into concepts, Kierkegaard argues that existence is that which always eludes understanding through abstractions. , it is a deep, internal, individual expression of personality. Existence is not accessible to understanding through scientific methods; it can be achieved in the only way - by making a choice and abandoning the sensory-contemplative way of being, determined by external environmental factors to oneself. This is the path to acquiring existence. Kierkegaard reveals in his doctrine the three stages of subjective dialectics.

The existential maturation of a person is his path to God, during which he successively passes through three stages: aesthetic, ethical and religious. An aesthetically living individual achieves emotional pleasure by refusing to find the “truth” of his existence; this refusal inevitably entails dissatisfaction and despair. At this stage, a person is determined by the external, his goal is pleasure. The principle of the ethical stage is duty, however, the true achievement of existence is achieved only at the highest - religious - stage.

Existentialism is a philosophical movement whose representatives highlight absolute uniqueness human existence, inexpressible in the language of concepts. In a strict sense, existentialism is not philosophical school, this term is used in relation to quite different thinkers, so it is more correct to talk not about a direction in philosophy, but about a special - existential - thinking. Kierkegaard is considered the predecessor and founder of existentialism, however, his views existed for a long time as an isolated phenomenon. Existentialism became popular only after the 1st World War, and in the 40-50s. After World War II, it acquired the status of the most widespread worldview. In the 20-30s, the main representatives of this movement are such thinkers as K. Jaspers, G. Marcel, M. Heidegger; in the 40-50s, new ideas were formed in the teachings of A. Camus and J.P. Sartre.

Existentialism is characterized by Special attention to ontological issues, this means that existential thinking unfolds exclusively in the sphere of being, and all other traditional philosophical problems acquire secondary importance as private consequences of the solution to the main ontological question. This is a question about the definition of existence in the general structure of existence, i.e. concretization of the ontological nature of human reality in relation to the rest of the principles of the universe. The fundamental property of human reality is its “intermediate” character, emphasizing its lack of independence, dependence on something else that is not a person.

Existentialists understand the nature of this “other” differently. Religious existentialists (Berdyaev, Shestov, Jaspers, Marcel, etc.) define this otherness as “transcendence” (aspiration beyond one’s own limitations to something higher and true), revealed in the act of faith. Despite all the differences among themselves, religious existentialists insist that the Divine is revealed only in the act of faith and exists only in it and only while this act lasts, and is not a prerequisite for faith. Only through the effort of maintaining this act is it possible to achieve “true existence.” On the contrary, outside the aspiration to transcendence, the degradation of personality occurs, its depersonalization and dissolution in the routine of everyday life. But even in such a situation, no matter how humiliated a person is in social reality, he at least vaguely feels his involvement in something higher, since existence is an existential, irreducible characteristic of human reality. A person’s focus on the world means inauthentic existence, “abandonment,” and the desire for the transcendental means genuine. A person hears the “call of being”, the “cry of being” in such phenomena as “fear” (Jaspers, Heidegger), “existential anxiety”, “nausea” (Sartre), “boredom” (Camus). All of these phenomena have not a psychological, but an ontological meaning, which lies in the fact that a yawning abyss of existence is revealed to a person, which he had not noticed before, calmly vegetating in the hustle and bustle of everyday affairs. Now his destiny is not well-fed peace with guaranteed rations, but the risk of personal decision and personal responsibility for his own existence. This is “authenticity,” which is more difficult to bear than mindlessly existing within the established order of things. Thus, religious existentialism calls a person from the world to God, to self-deepening, which allows him to gain a new, transcendental dimension of being, overcoming the limitations of the individual Self.

Representatives of atheistic existentialism A. Camus and J.P. Sartre considers being to be self-sufficient, self-sufficient and autonomous, denying God as its absolute expression. The main problem for these thinkers is the question of identity - human self-determination (“Who am I?”). Man exists in a state of “abandonment”; the world does not give him an answer to this question. There are no prescriptions, no script for our life, and a person is free to choose who he should be, free to determine his identity. This means that man is the only creature in the world whose existence precedes his essence (definition). The opportunity given to him to be free is realized in the corresponding choice of authentic or inauthentic being. Representatives of atheistic existentialism understand these categories differently than religious ones. Thus, for Sartre, an existence that strives for “positivity”, for limitless self-affirmation at the expense of others, is inauthentic, which, according to Sartre, is equivalent to the desire to become God. True existence, on the contrary, is the recognition of the inalienable freedom of another along with my own freedom, so that every act of my choice becomes a choice for all and for the sake of all.

Phenomenology is a philosophical direction, the founder of which was the German thinker E. Husserl (1859-1938). Literally translated, "phenomenology" means: the theory of phenomena or appearances. Representatives of this trend criticize the traditional objectivist position of classical science, believing that the only reliable reality is the reality of pure consciousness. “Pure” in phenomenology is a consciousness freed from the prejudices of psychologism and naturalism, i.e. consciousness purified from the “natural attitude” through the procedure of phenomenological reduction. Consciousness is usually in a state of “natural attitude”, i.e. is influenced by schemes and templates that set a rigid framework for studying the world. Phenomenology represents an attempt to build a new type of science – a science that is unpremised and unbiased. The biggest misconception of the consciousness located in the “natural attitude” is the confidence in the existence objective reality outside and apart from our consciousness, the reality that “really exists.” In order to be able to know what really is and what a new science should be based on, it is necessary to carry out the procedure of phenomenological reduction - purification of consciousness from all prejudices. To do this, it is necessary to mentally exclude from the space of reality ("bracket") those fragments of it, the reliability of which can be doubted. Thus, the external world (perhaps this is a collective illusion), other people’s opinions and knowledge (misconception), feelings, emotions, etc. are consistently left out of brackets. The only reliable reality that cannot be doubted is the reality of pure consciousness after the procedure; it can serve as the basis for further construction of knowledge.

The whole world, called objective in the “natural attitude,” is only a phenomenon of consciousness. Therefore, for a phenomenologist there is no objective-material reality “in itself”; accordingly, there are no standards for its study. An object, from the point of view of a phenomenologist, can only exist as a phenomenon given to our consciousness, and its study comes down to the study of ways of being given. Thus, a real thing is not a material reality, but the reality of those meanings and meanings that an object acquires in the horizon of consciousness. Thus, by describing givens and manifestations of these meanings, we describe the objects themselves in all the diversity of their manifestations. Thus, phenomenology tries to overcome the one-dimensionality of science, proclaiming the need to return “back to the objects themselves.” The life world is diverse in manifestations, they cannot be studied through the scientific method, they can only be described phenomenologically.

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