a) Hesiod; 2) “Theogony”; b) Spinoza; 1) “Ethics”; c) Kant; 4) “Critique of Pure Reason.” d) Nietzsche; 3) “Thus spoke Zarathustra”;

16. Correlate the philosophical positions and their authors:

a) materialism; 2) Marx; b) cynicism; 3) Diogenes; c) hedonism (philosophy of pleasure); 4) Epicurus. d) idealism; 1) Hegel;

17. Correlate philosophical positions and their characteristics:

a) anthropocentrism; 4) man is at the center of the world. b) theocentrism; 3) God is at the center of the world; c) pantheism; 2) God is everywhere; d) atheism; 1) denial of God;

18. Establish the sequence of historical and philosophical eras:

c) patristics; a) scholasticism; d) revival. b) education;

19. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical schools:

a) Pythagoreans; c) sophists; b) epicureans; d) Neoplatonists. d) existentialists;

20. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical trends:

b) atomism; a) epicureanism; d) realism; d) empiricism. c) encyclopedism;

21. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical trends:

b) sophistry; d) stoicism; a) patristics; d) realism. c) psychoanalysis;

22. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical trends:

d) neoplatonism; c) scholasticism; b) humanism; a) Marxism; e) neopositivism.

23. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical trends:

c) patristics; b) scholasticism; a) Cartesianism; d) positivism; e) phenomenology.

24. Correlate the philosophical directions and their characteristics:

a) skepticism; 2) philosophy of doubt; b) epicureanism; 3) philosophy of pleasure; c) patristics; 4) philosophy of salvation. d) existentialism; 1) philosophy of existence;

(9 question) 8. Philosophical maxims

1. Which philosopher is credited with saying “You cannot step into the same river twice”?

a) Heraclitus of Ephesus;

2. Which philosopher owns the statement “Man is the measure of all things”?

c) Protagoras;

3. Which philosopher owns the statement “I believe because it is absurd”?

d) Tertullian.

4. Which philosopher argued that “evil is the absence of good”?

b) Augustine the Blessed;

5. Which philosopher owns the statement “Philosophy is the handmaiden of theology”?

b) Thomas Aquinas;

6. Which philosopher is credited with the saying “Knowledge is power”?

a) F. Bacon;

7. Which philosopher owns the statement “I think, therefore I exist”?

c) Descartes;

8. Which philosopher owns the statement “Freedom is a conscious necessity”?

a) Spinoza;

9. Which philosopher owns the statement “Act in such a way as to always treat humanity, both in your own person and in the person of another, as an end, and never as a means”?

10. Which philosopher owns the statement “God is dead!”?

11. Which philosopher owns the statement: “What can be said at all should be said clearly, but what cannot be said should be kept silent”?

a) Wittgenstein;

12. A representative of which school could not have said the following statement: “The world is in constant motion and development”?

b) Eleatics;

13. Which representative philosophical direction could not have been the statement: “The names of objects and phenomena are just names that do not really exist”?

d) realism.

14. Which philosopher could not have said: “Philosophy occupies first place among other sciences and is the basis for them”?

15. Which philosopher could not have said: “Christian morality is the basis for the development of society”?

16. Which philosopher could not have said: “A ruler must always be guided by moral principles in order to be an example to his subjects”?

c) Machiavelli;

17. Which philosopher could not have said: “Arbitrariness is a manifestation of freedom”?

b) Spinoza;

18. Which philosopher could not have said the following: “Towards the end of his life?” life path I realized that I learned a lot”?

b) Socrates;

19. Which philosopher could not have said: “Our world is the only one of all possible worlds”?

c) J. Bruno;

20. Which philosopher could not have said: “The soul dies with the body”?

c) Plato;

21. Which philosopher could not have said: “Knowledge of the world occurs through knowledge of God”?

22. Which philosopher could not have said: “Man’s freedom lies in the fact that he is free to do as he wants”?

23. Which philosopher could not have said: “Before the existence of the state, people lived equal and happy”?

24. Which philosopher could not have said: “A person should treat others as a means of achieving his goals”?

(10, 11 questions) 9. The doctrine of being. Movement and development, dialectics

1. Ontology - this is a teaching :

c) about being as such;

2. Which of the ancient philosophers was the first to formulate the concept of “being”?

c) Parmenides;

3. Which of these philosophical concepts arose first?

d) the beginning.

4. Aristotle put forward a dual concept of understanding being:

a) passive matter and active form;

5. Development accompanied by the appearance of a more advanced quality compared to the previous one:

d) progress;

6. Objective connection between individual states of types and forms of matter in the processes of its movement and development:

a) causality;

7. Determinism is a doctrine:

c) about the universal natural connection, the cause-and-effect conditionality of phenomena;

8. Materialists claim that:

c) matter exists absolutely, it is uncreated and indestructible, infinite in the forms of its manifestation;

9. Materialists claim that matter is:

b) objective reality, given to a person in sensations;

10. Idealists claim that:

a) the fundamental principle of the world, nature, and existence is the spiritual principle;

11. Pantheism - This:

a) a doctrine that denies a personal God and brings him closer to nature, sometimes identifying them;

12. Hylozoism - This:

b) a doctrine that recognizes “life” as an integral property of matter;

13. What is the first principle in materialistic philosophical concepts?

c) matter;

14. What is the first principle in idealistic philosophical concepts?

15. An irreversible, unidirectional and natural change leading to the emergence of a new quality is:

d) development;

16. Fundamental concepts that reflect the most significant, stable and recurring connections and relationships between reality and knowledge:

17. The essence of any objects in the world is manifested:

d) in interaction with other objects.

18. The form of existence of matter, expressing the duration of its existence, the sequence of changes in states in the change and development of all material systems:

19. The form of existence of matter, characterizing its extension, structure, coexistence and interaction of elements in all material systems:

b) space;

20. The main interpretations of space and time include:

a) substantial; b) relational; e) subjective-idealistic.

21. The main interpretations of the category of matter include:

a) substrate; b) corpuscular; c) continuous;

22. From the point of view of the continuum interpretation, matter is something:

c) possessing spatiotemporal characteristics;

23. The universal form of existence of matter is:

in motion;

24. Main types of interaction of elements at the level of inanimate nature (indicate all options):

b) gravitational and electromagnetic; c) energy and information;

25. A significant, stable and recurring relationship is:

26. Uneven flow is inherent in:

d) historical time.

27. The materialism of the French Encyclopedists was:

b) mechanistic;

28. Feuerbach’s materialism was called:

d) anthropological;

29. The reduction of higher forms of motion of matter to lower ones is called:

d) reductionism;

30. The reduction of all forms of movement (including biological, etc.) to mechanical is called:

c) mechanism;

31. Objective idealism recognizes the following proposition:

e) the world of visible things is only a reflection of the real world of perfect prototypes that exist forever and unchangeably.

32. What law of dialectics can be figuratively illustrated by a spiral?

d) negation of negation.

33. What law of dialectics is clearly illustrated by the table of chemical elements by D.I. Mendeleev?

b) the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones;

34. The basic laws of dialectics are (indicate all correct options):

a) the law of unity and struggle of opposites; c) the law of mutual transition of quality and quantity; d) the law of negation of negation;

35. Progress and regression are two forms:

b) development;

36. The laws of dialectics do not include the law:

b) the identity of matter and consciousness;

37. Dialectics - This:

a) the doctrine of universal connections and laws of development of nature, society, thinking;

38. Complete the paired categories of dialectics:

b) reason – consequence d) essence – phenomenon

39. Establish the sequence of occurrence of interpretations of existence:

c) being as One; a) being creating and being created; d) the existence of the world as a “clockwork mechanism”. b) being as existence;

40. Establish the sequence of emergence of philosophical categories:

b) origin (arche); a) being; d) substance. c) existence;

41. Establish a sequence in the historical development of materialism:

b) spontaneous materialism; a) mechanistic materialism; d) anthropological materialism. c) dialectical materialism;

42. Establish a sequence in the development of idealism:

c) Plato’s objective idealism; e) scholastic realism of Anselm of Canterbury. d) Descartes' rationalism; b) Kant's transcendental idealism; a) absolute idealism of Hegel;

43. Establish the sequence of emergence of ontological interpretations:

a) the world of ideas and the world of shadows; b) the city of earth and the City of God; d) the world as a mechanism. c) the world as an objective reality;

44. Establish a sequence in the development of dialectics:

b) spontaneous dialectics (Heraclitus); c) idealistic categorical dialectics (Plato); d) absolute idealism (Hegel). a) dialectical materialism;

45. Establish the correspondence of the definition of being to one or another philosopher:

a) being is the essence and existence of a person; while the existence... 2) J.-P. Sartre; b) God and only He is the truly existing; invariably abiding... 1) Bl. Augustine; c) to be is to be perceived through the senses; sensation and... 3) J. Berkeley.

46. ​​Establish the correspondence of the understanding of time to one or another philosophical concept:

a) space and time are special entities that exist on their own; 2) substantial; b) space and time are special relationship between objects and processes; 1) relational; c) space and time are forms of perception of the world; 3) subjective-idealistic.

47. Correlate these interpretations of existence with philosophical schools:

a) In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. The earth was formless and empty,.. 2) Christianity; b) emptiness; the presence of an infinite number of indivisible particles;.. 3) atomists. c) motionless, infinite, indivisible; constantly abiding;.. 1) Eleatics;

48. Establish the correspondence of the interpretation of existence with the teachings of a particular philosopher:

a) the existence of nature, in reality, is non-existence, “other”; genuine.. 4) Plato. b) being - objective reality, independent of human consciousness;.. 2) Marx; c) being is the eternal self-development and self-movement of the absolute idea;.. 1) Hegel; d) the existence of things consists in their perceptibility. 3) Berkeley;

(12 question) 10. The problem of consciousness in philosophy

1. Consciousness is considered as a property of highly organized matter, in the philosophical direction:

c) dialectical materialism;

2. Consciousness is considered as a complex software product in:

b) cybernetics;

3. “Unconscious” in modern philosophy is:

a) phenomena and processes in the human psyche that he is not aware of, but influence his behavior;

4. The unconscious, by Z. Freud, there is:

c) “primary drives” with the aim of obtaining the greatest pleasure;

5. According to Freud, “I” and “It” are in a relationship:

b) constant conflict;

6. The Unconscious in Philosophy - This:

a) phenomena and processes in the human psyche that they are not aware of;

7. The philosophical concept of reflection refers to the phenomenon:

d) self-awareness;

8. Consciousness arises, functions and develops in the process:

b) human interaction with reality;

9. Choose the correct answer:

b) consciousness (in the form of self-awareness) arises at 2-4 years of age;

10. The most important condition for the emergence of consciousness in a person is:

b) communication with other people;

12. For the first time, the act of self-awareness as a condition for the reliability of knowledge of the world was considered by:

c) Descartes;

13. In what era do consciousness begin to be considered as a function of the human brain to reflect reality?

d) Enlightenment.

14. Hegel believed that consciousness:

c) autonomous from matter;

15. The first to unite consciousness and psyche:

16. Reflection property :

d) this is a global property of matter.

17. From the point of view of vulgar materialism:

c) consciousness is a substrate secreted by the brain;

18. Human consciousness differs from the psyche of vertebrate animals:

a) the presence of abstract thinking and speech;

19. Highlight the three most characteristic functions of language:

a) constructive (a tool for expressing thoughts); b) reflective (cognitive tool); d) communicative.

20. What appeared to a person first - thinking or language?

c) at the same time;

21. Human consciousness differs from the psyche of animals:

c) the ability to reflect, i.e. self-knowledge;

22. From the point of view of structuralism, human consciousness is a product of:

a) speech activity;

23. Establish the sequence of evolution of reflection in living nature:

e) opening and closing of flowers in plants. c) irritability in the amoeba; a) unconditioned reflexes in animals; b) conditioned reflexes in animals; d) human consciousness;

24. Establish the sequence of emergence of interpretations of consciousness:

d) consciousness – soul. c) consciousness is a divine gift; b) consciousness is a property of the human body; a) consciousness is the function of the brain to reflect reality;

(13, 14 questions) 11. Theory of knowledge. Philosophy of science

1. Epistemology - this teaching:

d) about the essence of knowledge, about the ways of comprehending the truth;

2. Cognition in modern philosophy is mainly considered as (indicate the most correct answer):

d) practice-based process of acquiring and developing knowledge.

3. Absolutization of the role and meaning of sensory data in philosophy is associated with the direction:

d) sensationalism;

4. Deduction - This:

a) a logical path from the general to the specific;

5. Induction - This :

c) the ascent of knowledge from particular, individual facts to generalizations of a higher order;

6. Method of cognition in philosophy and science, when thought moves from general provisions to particular conclusions:

b) deduction;

7. A form of thinking that reflects extremely general natural connections, aspects, signs of phenomena, enshrined in definitions:

8. Empiricism - This:

b) a direction in the theory of knowledge that considers sensory experience to be a source of knowledge;

9. Agnosticism - This:

b) a doctrine in epistemology that denies the possibility of reliable knowledge of the world;

10. In philosophy, “agnosticism” is understood as :

c) complete or partial denial of the fundamental possibility of knowledge;

11. The highest level of logical understanding; theoretical, reflective, philosophically thinking consciousness, operating with broad generalizations and focused on the most complete and deep knowledge of the truth - this is:

12. In resolving the issue of the knowability of the world, there are the following positions (indicate all correct options):

a) agnosticism; c) skepticism; d) epistemological optimism;

13. A doctrine that asserts the limited capabilities of man in understanding the world is called:

b) skepticism;

14. Which concept is superfluous in this list?

d) anthropocentrism.

15. Levels scientific knowledge(please indicate all options):

a) empirical; c) theoretical;

16. A certain stage of the cognitive process at which information about an object, received in sensations and perceptions, is stored in consciousness, and is reproduced later without direct influence of the object on the subject - This:

c) presentation;

17. The main forms of living contemplation (in the theory of cognition as reflection) do not include:

18. These forms of knowledge do not relate to theoretical knowledge:

b) presentation; d) perception.

19. A type of cognition that is woven into the fabric of a subject’s life, but does not have evidentiary power, is called:

c) ordinary;

20. Practice in its functions in the process of cognition is not:

d) successful replacement of theoretical research and scientific creativity.

21. Since truth does not depend on the knowing subject, it:

b) objective;

22. A concept opposite in meaning to “truth” in epistemology:

b) delusion;

23. A set of approaches, techniques, methods for solving various practical and educational problems - This:

a) methodology;

24. To what form of scientific knowledge does the concept of the alien origin of life on Earth belong?

a) hypothesis;

25. Science as a specific type of spiritual production and social institution arose in the era:

d) New times;

26. The structural components of theoretical scientific knowledge are (indicate all correct options):

a) problem; d) hypothesis; d) theory.

27. The doctrine that states that the criterion of truth is recognition in the scientific community is called:

a) conventionalism;

28. In Western European philosophy, rationalism primarily developed on the basis of the method:

c) deduction;

29. In the theory of knowledge, mutually exclusive but equally provable concepts are called:

d) antinomies;

30. Which definition of rationality is considered the main one in philosophy?

d) the ability of the mind to holistically embrace nature, society and its own subjectivity.

31. Empirical methods of cognition include (indicate all correct answers):

b) observation;

c) experiment;

d) measurement;

32. Theoretical methods of cognition include (indicate all correct answers):

a) analysis; c) idealization; e) modeling.

33. When using this method, individual properties of the object being studied are replaced with symbols or signs:

c) idealization;

34. Scientific knowledge is different from other knowledge (indicate all correct answers):

a) accuracy; b) validity; c) great predictive ability;

35. In the concept of T. Kuhn, the paradigm is interpreted as:

e) a set of prerequisites recognized at this stage and defining a specific scientific research.

36. This scientific picture of the world uses such general scientific concepts as instability, nonequilibrium, nonlinearity, irreversibility:

c) non-classical;

37. Science has such basic functions as (indicate all correct answers):

a) ideological; b) methodological; d) predictive.

38. In the earliest stages human history an important role was played by such forms of knowledge as:

b) everyday practical; c) gaming; d) mythological.

39. The main concepts of truth include:

a) conventional; b) pragmatic; d) compliance;

40. The concept of “practice” in philosophy can be denoted by the following terms (indicate the most correct answer):

c) experience in general;

41. Establish the sequence of occurrence of epistemological attitudes:

b) “I know that I know nothing”; a) “I believe in order to know”; c) “I think, therefore I exist”; d) “We live inside language.”

42. Establish the correspondence of philosophical schools in relation to their understanding of the significance of science:

a) scientistic trends 4) neopositivism; 5) neo-Kantianism. b) anti-scientist movements 2) existentialism; 1) neo-Thomism; 3) “philosophy of life”;

43. Match the term with the definition:

1. Absolute truth c) Truth that is identical to its subject and has passed many years of testing. 2. Relative truth b) Incomplete knowledge about the subject (complex natural system); 3. Truth as revelation a) Knowledge that penetrates and embraces the infinite spiritual fundamental principle of the universe;

44. What definition of truth corresponds to the historical era?

a) Antiquity 2. Truth is the manifestation of an idea (Plato) or essence (Aristotle); b) Middle Ages 3. God, that is the truth; c) New times 1. Truth is the correspondence of feelings and ideas to facts; d) XX century 4. Truth is the revealed essence of a thing (hermeneutics).

45. Determine what period of time certain historical forms of science are inherent in:

a) romantic; 2) XV century. b) classic; 1) XVII century c) non-classical; 4) XX century d) post-non-classical. 3) XXI century.

46. ​​What level of scientific research corresponds to the following goal?

a) Empirical 2. Compare the theory with the facts, check the degree of its effectiveness; 3. Obtain new experimental facts; b) Theoretical 1. Come up with a new theory that would be more effective than the old one; 4. Carry out a theoretical interpretation of experimental facts.

47. Establish the correspondence of the definition to one or another philosophical direction:

a) we cannot fully understand the world because our feelings and minds are imperfect; 1) skepticism; b) science is only a description of the flow of our perceptions and.. 2) agnosticism; c) objects exist only insofar as they are perceived; 4) solipsism. d) philosophy should be a method of solving problems that face..3) pragmatism;

48. Establish the correspondence of the criterion of truth to one or another philosophical direction:

a) consistent judgment in agreement with the scientific community; 3) conventionalism. b) verifiability; 1) neopositivism; c) practice. 2) dialectical materialism;

(15 question) 12. The essence and nature of man

1. An individual in philosophy is understood as:

b) generic concept, i.e. expressing the common features inherent in the human race;

2. Personality in philosophy is understood as:

c) a stable system of socially significant traits, characteristics of a person as a member of society;

3. When using the concept “personality” we mean such qualities as:

c) spiritual and social qualities acquired by each person;

4. The unique originality of an individual person (appearance, character, habits, features, etc.), as opposed to typical traits, - This:

c) personality;

5. The specificity of philosophical anthropology is that it;

c) tries to determine the essence of man, the humanity in man;

6. The term “anthropogenesis” means:

a) the process of historical and evolutionary formation of the physical type of a person;

7. The term “phylogeny” means:

a) the process of human development from primitiveness to modernity;

8. The term “ontogenesis” means:

e) the process of human development from birth to death.

9. Medieval philosophers argued that man:

b) created in the image and likeness of God;

10. This quality in a person was considered the most important in the philosophy of the New Age:

c) reasonableness, rationality;

11. Biologization concepts claim that:

b) a person’s life is determined by his genotype;

c) the purposeful influence of the subject on the object (where another subject may be a special case of the object);

13. The process of socialization means:

c) the assimilation and use of sociocultural experience by a person;

14. The term “culture” means (choose the most correct answer):

c) culture is a fusion of methods of activity and the results of this activity in the form of a set of created material and spiritual values;

15. From the point of view of hedonism, the meaning of life is that:

c) life is pleasures, preferably as varied as possible, here and now;

16. The subject of ethics is:

c) morality;

17. A person’s responsibility for his actions is possible only if he has:

a) choice;

18. Complete the missing paired ethical categories:

b) freedom – responsibility d) rights – responsibilities

19. Section of philosophy that studies morality and specific phenomena of social life:

20. Axiology - this is the doctrine of:

a) about values, their origin and essence;

21. The requirement of non-violence means, first of all, the renunciation of:

a) imposing your opinion on others;

c) Cicero;

24. Scientific discoveries that contributed to the destruction of the anthropocentric picture of the world:

b) creation of a heliocentric system of the world;

(question 16) 13. Society and history

1. This philosophical position asserts that social life is an arena of the struggle for existence:

b) social Darwinism;

2. The most closed social group is:

3. The concept of class is key in philosophy:

c) Marx;

4. The concept that states that the state arises as a result of the division of labor in society,

is called:

b) socio-economic;

5. The theory of a single global civilization was formulated:

d) Moiseev.

6. F. Fukuyama declared in his philosophy:

Housing

Results of observations

9. In the historical core of cities and in areas of industrial construction carried out in the 19th century, there is overpopulation (density reaches 1000 and even 1500 people per hectare)

Density, i.e. the ratio between the number of people and the area of ​​the territory in which they live, can be significantly changed by varying the height of the building. But until now, the number of floors in buildings was limited to six to seven floors. The densities allowed for such a number of storeys are 250-300 inhabitants per 1 hectare. If this density, as is the case in many areas, reaches 600, 800 and even 1000 inhabitants, then slums are formed, characterized by the following features:

1) insufficient living space per person; 2) extremely low illumination of the premises; 3) insufficient insolation (northern orientation of premises or their darkness in narrow streets and cramped courtyards); 4) dilapidation of buildings and the presence of pathogenic conditions (tuberculosis); 5) lack or insufficiency of sanitary facilities; 6) overcrowding of the population living in cramped apartments, bad houses located in unfavorable conditions.

The core of ancient cities, surrounded by defensive fortifications, is usually densely built up with houses, devoid of free space surrounding them. Outside the city walls there were spacious green areas easily accessible to the population. Over time, urban development expanded, and green vegetation gave way to stone buildings. This is how the “lungs” of cities were destroyed. Under these conditions, high density means a sharp deterioration in the life of the population.

10. Crowded urban areas create harmful living conditions for the population. These conditions are caused by the lack of necessary living space and proper maintenance of buildings (the operation of houses is based on speculation). The situation is aggravated by the presence of a large population with a low standard of living, unable to provide themselves with protective measures against diseases (mortality reaches 20%)

The slum character of a dwelling is determined mainly by its internal condition. But poverty continues outside the apartments - in narrow and gloomy streets, devoid of greenery - a source of oxygen so necessary for the development of children.

The funds invested in the construction of these cities in ancient times have long been depreciated; but it is still considered possible for the owner of a wretched home to exploit it as a marketable commodity. Despite the fact that the true value of such housing is negligible, it continues to bring considerable income to its owner with impunity. A butcher selling rotten meat would be severely punished, but providing rotten housing to poor people is legal. For the sake of enriching a handful of egoists, it is considered possible to allow horrific mortality and the spread of various diseases that cause heavy damage to our society.

11. Expanding cities are gradually destroying the adjacent green areas that previously adjoined their border areas. As a result, residential areas are increasingly moving away from the natural environment, which leads to deterioration of hygienic conditions

The more a city grows, the more damage is done to “natural conditions.” By “natural conditions” we mean the presence of a sufficient number of necessary factors for the development of living beings - sun, space, greenery. Uncontrolled expansion has deprived cities of their basic psychological and physiological foundations of life. A person who has lost contact with nature pays severely for this - he is susceptible to disease and degeneration, he loses his health and becomes decrepit for the sake of the illusory joys of city life. All this has become especially widespread over the last century.

12. The placement of residential buildings in cities is in conflict with hygiene requirements

The main task of urban planning is to ensure necessary conditions for the full development of people. The health of each person depends on the extent to which he is provided with satisfactory “natural conditions”. The sun, which controls the growth and development of all living things, must freely penetrate into every home, penetrate it with its rays, which have such a beneficial effect on people’s lives. A green environment should fill the home with air purified from dust and harmful gases. Houses should be freely placed in space. We should not forget that the feeling of space is an important psychophysiological factor, and crowded streets and courtyards have a detrimental effect on health and negatively affect the general condition of people. The Fourth CIAM¹ Congress, held in Athens, proclaimed the following postulate: sun, greenery and space are the three main elements of urban planning.

_________

¹ CIAM - International Congresses on Contemporary Architecture. A society that united architects from different countries in order to renew architecture and fight against academicism, eclecticism and routine. Created in 1928. Main organizers: Le Corbusier (France), Gideon (Switzerland), Sert (Spain) and Gropius (Germany). (Note per.).

The adoption of this postulate allows us to correctly assess the current situation and develop proposals for the future from a truly humane position.

13. The most densely populated areas of cities are located in the most unfavorable areas (poor orientation, areas shrouded in fog of industrial emissions, gas, areas prone to flooding, etc.)

There are no laws yet that determine the optimal conditions of modern housing, conditions that not only ensure a normal standard of living, but also contribute to the constant prosperity of a person. Land plots for residential buildings are allocated arbitrarily as cities grow, guided by random and sometimes base interests. A government official will not hesitate to lay out the alignments of new streets in such a way that the newly built houses will deprive thousands of apartments of sunshine. Unfortunately, individual members of municipalities have been given the opportunity to locate new workers' quarters in areas previously considered uninhabitable due to their excessive dampness. Such an official believes that the northern slope, which has never attracted anyone, is a damp, smoky place, a collection of smoke, gas and harmful industrial emissions, a quite suitable place for settling the so-called alien labor force - workers coming to work from other countries and cities. ..

14. A good home, washed by air (the houses of the rich), is located in the best areas, protected from unfavorable winds, in places with magnificent views of the surrounding landscape - lake, sea, mountains, etc. These areas are generously illuminated by the sun

The most favorable areas usually house the luxurious homes of the wealthy. This proves that, having material opportunities, people instinctively strive to settle in good places, arranging your home in the best natural conditions.

15. Such distribution of housing is considered normal and legal by the city authorities and is called zoning

Zoning is the division of a city's plan for the purpose of determining the location of its various functions and individual residents. It involves the distribution of urban space according to different types human activity: housing, industrial and shopping centers, territories and structures intended for recreation.

But if, due to the established order, the home of the rich is separated from the home of the poor, which is dictated by the “sacred right” of the propertied to create for themselves the best and most healthy living conditions, we categorically condemn this. There is an urgent need to change some established customs. It is necessary to ensure that an irreconcilable law prescribes certain living conditions for every person, regardless of his financial situation. It is necessary to achieve urban planning legislation that excludes a situation where entire families of city residents are deprived of light, air and space.

16. It should be established that houses built along transport highways and at their intersections are not suitable for housing due to noise, dust and harmful gases

If such a ban is introduced, separate zones will have to be set aside for housing and transport routes. Then residential buildings will not be “soldered” to the street using sidewalks.

They will be placed in a clean environment, in silence, surrounded by sun and air. Roads should be divided into slow-moving roads for pedestrians and high-speed roads for mechanical transport.

These roads will each perform its own functions, approaching the home only in the necessary places.

17. The traditional placement of residential buildings along the streets provides normal living conditions for only a minimal part of the residents

The traditional placement of residential buildings along the streets leads to their forced arrangement.

Parallel or diagonal highways, intersecting, form square, rectangular, triangular or trapezoidal blocks. Once built, they form “blocks”. The need to illuminate the central space of such blocks gives rise to the creation of courtyards of a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Unfortunately, legal regulations allow owners, hungry for maximum profits, to reduce the area of ​​these yards to truly scandalous proportions. All this leads to such a sad result: one of the facades, whether facing the street or the courtyard, is oriented to the north and thus is always deprived of the sun, and in the rest, taking into account the crowded streets and courtyards and the shadows falling from nearby buildings, it is also half deprived of sunlight. Studies have shown that in cities, approximately half or one third of residential building facades do not receive sunlight. In some cases this ratio is even more catastrophic.

18. Placement of domestic buildings is arbitrary

The apartments house the lives of individual families, each of them striving to create the most favorable conditions for themselves and achieving this to the best of their ability. In addition, every family needs a number of public buildings, which represent, as it were, an extension of the home. These are shopping centers, medical institutions, kindergartens and nurseries, schools, as well as institutions and areas designated for sports and recreation - “health complexes”. The positive significance of these collective institutions is undeniable, but their necessity is not yet sufficiently realized by the mass of city residents. Their construction is just beginning and is being carried out fragmentarily, without taking into account the general needs of the population.

19. Schools, as a rule, are located near transport routes and are significantly removed from residential areas

School buildings, which are specially designed to meet specific educational requirements, are usually poorly located in urban areas. They are built far from home, exposing students to the dangers of the streets. In addition, children under 6 years of age and adolescents over 13 years of age are deprived of a number of pre- and post-school institutions that are so necessary for their overall development.

The location of residential buildings in cities does not provide the opportunity for the proper placement of the necessary child care facilities. Properly located children's institutions not only protect children from the dangers of the street, but also ensure the full education and development of their physical and moral qualities.

20. Suburban areas are developed without plans and are not provided with convenient connections to the city

The suburban areas of modern cities are degenerate suburbs and settlements. Ancient cities in the past were military settlements surrounded by defensive fortifications. Outside the defensive walls, settlements arose along the access roads. They housed the surplus population that had no place within the city walls. People settled here at their own peril and risk, exposing themselves to all sorts of dangers.

Over time, settlements, in turn, were built with defensive walls, incorporating sections of roads extending from the city. This caused the first damage to the clear outline of the plan of the original city.

A characteristic feature of the era of machine technology is the creation of suburbs, haphazardly built up on the territory where things that do not find a place in the city are located, where all sorts of “risky” enterprises are created and small craft workshops are located, the products of which, as a rule, are considered unimportant and temporary. In fact, many of these workshops sometimes grow to gigantic proportions. The suburbs are a kind of foam beating against the walls of cities. In the 19th and 20th centuries. this foam turned into a sea tide and then into a flood. It seriously compromised the fate of the city and the possibility of its regular growth. Being a place of settlement for random and poor people suffering from poverty and many other misfortunes, suburban areas have become a breeding ground for various violations and disorders. Suburbs often occupy areas many times larger than the cities themselves. And from these defective suburbs, for which the problem of distance and time does not find a solution, they are trying to create garden cities. Phantom paradise, reckless ventures!

Suburbia is an urban development flaw that has spread throughout the world and is at its ugliest in America. They represent one of the most terrible curses of our age.

21. An attempt was made to include the suburbs within the administrative boundaries of cities

Too late! Attempts to include suburbs within the administrative boundaries of cities were made with great delay. The law on private property rights stood in their way as an insurmountable obstacle. The expropriation of a property located on a vacant lot, on which its owner has built several barracks, a warehouse or a workshop, is associated with great and numerous difficulties. Sometimes these territories are sparsely populated and almost not exploited, and the city is forced to provide the suburban area with all elements of equipment and services: build roads, conduct underground communications, create transport links, lighting, build schools, medical institutions, etc. Due to the small population, living in these areas, the costs of developing the latter are not justified and can threaten the city budget. Whenever city authorities set themselves the task of reconstruction and urban planning of suburban areas, they encounter such great financial difficulties that they are unable to overcome them.

If city authorities want to ensure the harmonious development of suburban areas, then they should begin to provide leadership in this matter even before the birth of the suburbs.

22. Suburbs are often areas with low-value development, which does not create the necessary conditions for development

Clumsily put together shacks, plank barracks filled with a wide variety of materials, a refuge for beggars and vagabonds - this is what the suburbs are. Their ugly and dreary appearance is a disgrace to the cities they surround. The taxes collected from the semi-poor population are meager amounts that do not compensate for the costs of improving the suburbs, so their maintenance places a heavy burden on the main population of the city. The suburbs are the dirty frontiers of cities; They open out in numerous streets onto the main highways connecting the cities with each other, disrupting and making traffic along them dangerous. From an airplane they look like a web of randomly scattered buildings and streets; they make a very unsightly impression on people arriving in cities by rail.

We must demand

23. From now on, the best urban areas should be allocated for residential areas, taking into account optimal topographic and climatic conditions, parts that are most illuminated by the sun and adjacent to green areas

The cities that exist today were built without the desire to create favorable conditions for the population. History suggests that their gradual development occurred naturally, in accordance with the requirements of the time, and that cities not only grew, but were sometimes rebuilt within their territories.

The era of machine technology, which grossly violated the established order for centuries, led cities to chaos. Our task is to bring order to the development of cities by developing projects designed for their gradual reconstruction. The development of residential areas and the problem of creating new types of apartments are tasks of paramount importance. The best areas should be reserved for housing and, if due to indifference and greed they have been brought into poor condition, every effort should be made necessary efforts to establish complete order in them. To create the best living conditions, a number of requirements must be met. It is necessary that when placing a dwelling, the following must be done simultaneously: picturesque vistas should open from the windows of the apartments; areas should have clean air, protected from winds and smoke, slopes with optimal orientation. It is necessary to make maximum use of existing green spaces, restore them, and create new ones.

24. The choice of residential areas should be determined by hygiene requirements

The condition of many cities does not meet modern, legally defined hygiene requirements. But establishing a diagnosis and recommending solutions to the problem is not enough; It is necessary for the authorities to take the necessary measures to rectify the situation. In the name of public health, entire city blocks must be destroyed. Some of these blocks - the result of hasty speculation - must be razed to the ground; others of historical value, with cultural and artistic monuments, should be partially preserved. Everything that is of artistic and historical value must be saved, and everything that is in a threatening position and poses a danger is mercilessly destroyed.

Just putting the home in order is not enough; it is necessary to create its continuation outside the residential buildings in the form of sports grounds and structures organically included in the master plans of cities.

25. Depending on the natural conditions of the site and accordingly designed residential buildings, the required population densities should be determined

Urban population densities must be set by law. Depending on the specific conditions, the densities may be different: in one case, cities will be freely located on the terrain, in another - they will be built compactly. Determining population densities is a highly responsible mission for governing bodies.

With the beginning of the era of machine technology, the spontaneous and uncontrolled growth of cities began, which was the cause of the misfortune of many of them. The creation and development of populated areas must be based on an in-depth study of specific conditions. City design should be carried out for a long term, for example 50 years. The project must determine the optimal population size. The 50th anniversary plan must provide for the rational distribution of the population, taking into account the time-distance factor. Once the population size and size of the urban area are established, its population density will be determined.

26. Each apartment must have a minimum insolation level

By studying solar radiation, science has determined its beneficial and sometimes harmful effects on humans. The sun is the source of life. Medicine has established that tuberculosis spreads where there is no sun; it requires that people live in the best possible “natural conditions.” For several hours a day, the sun should penetrate into every apartment, even in unfavorable times of the year. Society will no longer tolerate the fact that entire families are deprived of the sun. Any residential building project in which one of the apartments faces entirely north or is deprived of the sun due to shading should be categorically rejected. It is necessary to require that designers present a diagram of illumination showing that even during the earth's solstice, each apartment will be illuminated by the sun for at least 2 hours a day. Otherwise, the project should not receive implementation rights. Bringing the sun into the home is a new and indispensable responsibility of the architect.

27. The construction of residential buildings along highways should be prohibited

Transport arteries, i.e. the streets of our cities, do not meet the requirements of our time. Various flows flow into them: in one case it is the movement of pedestrians, in the other it is the movement of public transport - buses, trams and faster ones - cars and trucks, constantly interrupted by stops.

Sidewalks, created in the era of horse traction in order to protect pedestrians from carriages and carts, in our time of high mechanical speeds do not meet their original purpose. The entrances of many houses in cities face directly these dangerous places; An infinite number of windows in residential buildings look out onto noisy and dusty streets filled with harmful gases emitted by heavy traffic.

This provision requires radical changes: pedestrian speeds of 4 km/h and mechanical speeds of 50-100 km/h need to be separated. The home should be located away from mechanical speeds, which should be allocated to special routes.

28. It is necessary to use the capabilities of modern technology for the construction of multi-story buildings

In every era, buildings were built using the technical capabilities of their time. Until the 19th century. the houses had load-bearing walls only of stone and brick, and the interfloor ceilings were wooden. XIX century was transitional and was marked by the introduction of profiled metal structures. And finally, in the 20th century. Monolithic reinforced concrete and all-metal structures appeared. Before this truly revolutionary innovation in the field of building construction, the height of residential buildings did not exceed seven floors. Nowadays, these restrictions do not exist. Buildings reach 65 or more floors. Now, as a result of a serious and thorough analysis, the height of urban development should be determined for each individual case.

To determine the required height of modern residential buildings, one must proceed from the task of choosing good viewpoints from the windows, providing clean air and maximum insolation, the possibility of creating in the immediate vicinity a number of necessary public buildings - schools, children's and medical institutions and playgrounds, which represent both would be a continuation of the home. High-rise buildings can best meet all these requirements.

29. Placing multi-storey buildings at a considerable distance from each other will free up land for the creation of large green areas

Such houses must be located at a sufficiently large distance from one another, otherwise they will significantly worsen the living conditions in them. Gross mistakes in this regard have been made in cities in both Americas.

The development of cities, including the construction of private buildings, must be carried out in accordance with a given program. It is necessary to ensure a sufficiently high density of buildings in order to be able to construct the necessary public buildings that are an extension of the home. Establishing the density will allow one to calculate a reasonable population size and then determine the size of the area required for the city.

The most responsible responsibility assigned to the state authorities is to determine the relationship between the developed and free territories, the reasonable placement of residential buildings, private buildings and their continuation in the form of public buildings. The authorities must determine the size of the urban area for the future and prevent its expansion. All this should be expressed in the publication of a law on the development of urban areas.

Thus, from now on, urban development will be strictly regulated within the limits determined by law, subject to the provision of ample opportunity for the manifestation of private initiative and the imagination of the artist.

“Plan Voisin” (1925) is an experimental project for the radical reconstruction of Paris, which Le Corbusier presented at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts in 1925. Voisin's plan envisaged the construction of a new business center for Paris on completely cleared territory; To achieve this, it was proposed to demolish 240 hectares of old urban buildings. Eighteen identical office skyscrapers, each 50 floors high, were arranged according to the plan freely, at a distance from each other. High-rise buildings complemented the horizontal structures at their base - with the functions of all kinds of service and maintenance. The built-up area was only 5%, and the remaining 95% of the territory was allocated for highways, parks and pedestrian areas. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville radieuse (1935).

Fragment of the Voisin Plan with a multi-level transport interchange in the city center. Illustration from the book: Le Corbusier. La Ville radieuse (1935).

Rest

Results of observations

30. As a rule, there are never enough free territories

There are still vacant areas in cities. These are lands miraculously preserved to this day: parks surrounding royal and princely palaces, gardens belonging to wealthy citizens, and shady boulevards created on the site of destroyed defensive fortifications. Over the past two centuries, these reserve areas have been developed in a predatory manner. In this way, the historically developed massifs that served as the “lungs” of the city were destroyed. In place of lawns and green areas, residential buildings were erected and stone pavements were made.

In the past, green spaces were the property of a limited circle of privileged people. A different social approach to solving this problem is now needed. Green spaces should receive a different purpose - to become a direct or distant extension of the home. Direct, when they surround residential buildings, and distant, when they represent large areas at a distance from them. In both cases, their purpose is similar: to be places of collective recreation for young people, games, fun and walks.

31. Sometimes free territories are quite extensive, but poorly located and therefore difficult to access for the population

If there are a few large vacant areas in a modern city, they are either located far from the central areas, or they are gardens adjacent to rich mansions located in the city center.

In the first case, green areas are located far from the place of residence of the bulk of the population and can only be visited in Sundays. Therefore, they do not have the necessary and beneficial impact on the daily life of city residents, which takes place in poor conditions.

In the second, they are inaccessible to the broad masses, and therefore their function is reduced only to decorating the city, but not fulfilling the role of an everyday and useful extension of the home.

Thus, in both cases the most important problem of national hygiene remains unresolved.

32. Free spaces located on the periphery of cities do not contribute to improving the living conditions of the population living in central, over-densified areas

The task of urban planning is to develop rules that provide favorable living conditions for the population, not only by improving their physical condition, but also their moral one, making life joyful. After sometimes hard, physically and nervously exhausting work, people should have a sufficient number of hours of rest. These free hours, which will undoubtedly increase thanks to the introduction of machine technology, must take place in favorable natural conditions.

Therefore, the creation and protection of green areas in cities is the most important measure to help improve people's health. This is one of the main tasks of urban planning, to which government authorities should pay maximum attention.

The housing problem can be satisfactorily solved only if correct proportional relationships are ensured between the built-up and unoccupied areas.

33. Rare sports facilities built near residential areas are often temporary, built on sites intended for future residential or industrial construction. Hence their constant restructuring and transfers to new places

Showing concern for the leisure of the population, sports societies create various complexes in temporarily free territories, but the construction is carried out unofficially, so their existence is short-lived.

Time allocated for recreation and entertainment can be divided into three categories: daily, weekly and annual. Everyday free time should be spent in close proximity to the home. Weekly allows you to travel outside the city and within the region. Annual rest or vacation time can be spent traveling outside the city and region.

Thus, reserve green areas should be provided: 1) in close proximity to the home; 2) in areas adjacent to cities; 3) in different parts countries.

34. Areas that could be developed for weekly recreation are often poorly connected to the city

After choosing a territory for organizing a weekly vacation in suburban areas, the problem of organizing transport communications arises. This problem must be resolved at the initial stage of planning work. Various types of transport links should be used - the construction of highways and railways, the development of river routes.

We must demand

35. From now on, green areas should be created in every residential area to accommodate children’s playgrounds and sports grounds, as well as recreational areas for adults and the elderly

This can only be ensured if there is a law on the distribution of urban land. The law must provide for the possibility of ensuring optimal conditions for the urban population. Thus, population density, percentage of vacant areas and building area will vary according to function, location and climatic conditions. The buildings being constructed will be located among the green areas surrounding them. Residential and green areas should be mutually located so that they are easily accessible. The general urban planning scheme of populated areas must be modified: agglomerations will gradually turn into green cities. Contrary to what is the case in garden cities, green spaces should not be divided into numerous private domains, but should represent single areas intended for collective use as an extension of the home.

Vegetable gardening, which had a lot important when creating garden cities, it will remain in this case. A certain amount of land will be allocated for vegetable gardens, divided into numerous individual plots; but their processing, irrigation or watering will be organized on a collective basis, which will facilitate their maintenance and help increase productivity.

36. Slum areas should be demolished and converted into green spaces. This will improve the sanitary condition of the surrounding areas

It's enough just general knowledge in the field of hygiene to be able to identify slums and dilapidated areas. These neighborhoods must be razed to the ground. The territories liberated from them must be turned into parks that will initial stage improving living and sanitary conditions for neighboring areas. But it may turn out that the territory freed from dilapidated buildings is convenient for placing a number of structures necessary for city life. In this case, a reasonable urban planning proposal will determine the feasibility of erecting the appropriate structure, which will be taken into account when drawing up regional planning projects and the city master plan.

37. New green areas should be intended for a specific use: placement of kindergartens, schools, youth centers and other public buildings necessary to serve the population

The green areas where residential buildings will be located will not only be used to decorate the city. First of all, they will perform a utilitarian function. The greenery will house public buildings: nurseries, before- and after-school institutions, youth clubs, cultural and sports institutions, reading and gaming pavilions, sports grounds, jogging tracks or outdoor swimming pools. They will be an extension of the home, and therefore their creation should be provided for by the “law on the distribution of urban land”.

38. Weekly rest hours should be spent in specially designed places for this purpose - in parks, forests, sports grounds, stadiums, beaches, etc.

So far, nothing or almost nothing has been created to organize weekly recreation for the population of cities. For this purpose will be reserved and landscaped vast spaces in suburban areas. Necessary and convenient transport connections will be provided to these places. We are not talking about simple clearings surrounding residential buildings and planted with trees. These should be real prairies, forests, natural or artificial beaches, located on alienated and carefully protected lands and intended for recreation and entertainment of city residents. Similar territories exist at short distances from each city, and they can become quite accessible to the population provided that well-established transport connections are created.

39. Parks, sports grounds, stadiums, beaches, etc.

The recreation program should include a variety of activities: collective and individual walks in picturesque places; various sports - tennis, basketball, football, swimming, weightlifting; spectacles - concerts, setting up green theaters, holding sports competitions and games. In this case, a number of specialized structures should be provided: rationally organized vehicles for delivering the population, hotels, tourist centers, taverns, youth camps. An important task is to organize the supply of food and drinking water to all recreation areas.

40. You should also wisely use existing natural factors - rivers, forests, hills, mountains, glades, lakes, sea, etc.

The problem of distances, taking into account the development of transport means, will not play a decisive role. In this regard, sometimes it is more expedient to place recreation areas at some distance. When developing a territory for recreation areas, it is necessary not only to take care of the existing preserved landscape, but also to restore places that have been damaged.

Local authorities are entrusted with the most important task of social significance - to organize recreation in such a way that it truly restores the physical and moral strength of people. Effective use of free time will strengthen the health and moral qualities of the urban population.

Job

Results of observations

41. In our time, places of employment are irrationally located in the urban development system. These are industry, craft workshops, administrative and commercial buildings

In the past, the home and the craft workshop were located close to each other, and sometimes formed a single whole.

The rapid development of machine technology has disrupted these harmonious conditions. In less than a century, it changed the face of cities, destroyed centuries-old traditions and gave birth to a new kind of anonymous and ever-moving workforce.

The development of industry largely depends on the possibilities of delivering raw materials and organizing convenient sales of finished products. Therefore, industrial enterprises literally proliferated along the routes renewed in the 19th century, railways and on the banks of rivers, using river boats as transport. Wanting to exploit the proximity of workers and the existing supply base, industrialists located their enterprises in existing cities or in close proximity to them, neglecting the misfortunes that these plants and factories would bring to urban residents.

Plants and factories located in the middle of residential areas filled them with smoke and noise. If they were located at a considerable distance from residential areas, this forced workers to make tedious and long journeys every day in difficult conditions and thus deprived them of part of their rest time.

The violation of the patriarchal conditions of labor organization caused unimaginable disorder, created problems that no one has been able to solve to this day, and gave rise to the great vice of our era - the nomadic way of life of the working population.

42. Connections between places of residence and work have been disrupted, necessitating long-term travel.

The most important factor of modern life - the connection between housing and work - has been disrupted. The suburbs are filled with workshops, factories and large industrial enterprises, which are constantly and limitlessly expanding, capturing more and more land.

The cities turned out to be overpopulated, unable to accept new residents. As a result, settlements began to quickly appear in suburban areas, representing a collection of squalid residential buildings and rental plots.

The labor force, not associated with specific industries, constantly changing places of work, day and night, winter and summer, is on the move, disorganizing and overloading urban transport.

The haphazard movement of people leads to large losses of time.

43. The congestion of city transport during peak hours has reached its limit

Public transport - commuter trains, buses and metro - operates at full capacity only four times a day. During rush hours, traffic becomes extremely tense. The population is forced to spend significant amounts of money on transport, which causes them great inconvenience, which is aggravated by fatigue after a working day.

Operating public transport is associated with significant costs. The money paid by passengers does not compensate for operating costs, so the maintenance of transport places a heavy burden on the city budget.

To overcome this situation, conflicting solutions are proposed: should we create the best conditions for organizing transport or should we take care of passengers? We must choose! In one case it is proposed to reduce the territory of cities, in the other - to expand them.

44. The lack of long-term plans leads to uncontrolled urban sprawl, land speculation, etc. Industry is located spontaneously, not subject to any rules

Almost all urban and suburban lands belong to private individuals. Industry is also in the hands of private companies, subject to crises and other phenomena that disrupt their activities.

Nothing was done to subordinate the development of industry to a logical pattern. On the contrary, its development took place spontaneously, bringing profits to individuals and causing inconvenience to the entire population.

45. Administrative buildings are located in business centers. These centers are located in the best parts of cities and are provided with a developed transport network, so the spirit of private profit and land speculation reigns in them. These areas also do not have rational development plans

The development of industry causes the growth of the administrative and commercial apparatus, and in this area, too, everything develops haphazardly and without plans. It is necessary to buy and sell, to ensure contacts between factories and suppliers, with clients and with other enterprises. All this necessitates the creation of an administrative and managerial apparatus and, consequently, the construction of special buildings equipped with sophisticated equipment. This equipment in a dispersed form is quite expensive. The concentration of management in large organizations would be much more rational, since it is easier to interconnect individual industries and it is more convenient to establish connections with other organizations. In addition, the working conditions of employees would improve. This would be facilitated by good lighting of the premises, central heating, air conditioning, Maintenance- expedition, mail, telegraph, etc.

We must demand

46. ​​Distances between places of work and residence should be kept to a minimum

To do this, it is necessary to carefully develop a plan for placing labor and begin relocating enterprises.

Placing industrial enterprises in a ring around large cities could be convenient for a number of entrepreneurs and contribute to their enrichment, but this principle should be abandoned due to the fact that this will worsen the living conditions of the majority of the population and lead to excessive crowding of cities.

Industrial enterprises should be moved to the routes of movement of raw materials and built along highways, railways and rivers. Transport routes are linear in nature, so industrial cities should not be concentric, but linear.

47. Industrial zones should be separated from residential areas, and the space between them should be turned into green area

Industrial cities should be built along canals, highways and railways, or sequentially along the three listed routes. The city will become linear rather than concentric. In this case, residential areas will be built parallel to industrial enterprises and expand as they grow. They will be separated by a green zone.

From now on, housing will be created in the middle of nature, it will be completely protected from noise and dust, while remaining close to the place of work, which will eliminate long daily journeys and will allow people to enjoy more of their family home. The development will be carried out by three types of residential buildings: individual houses, usually built in garden cities, individual houses with small plots and, finally, apartment buildings with developed services that provide convenience of living.

48. Industrial zones should be built along railways, canals and highways

Increasing speeds of mechanical transport require the creation of more advanced transport arteries or the reconstruction of existing highways, railways and canals. Reconstruction should be carried out taking into account the new location of industrial enterprises and the housing for workers being built at them.

49. Handicraft production directly serving the population must be located in specially designated areas within cities

Craft production differs from industrial production and should be located in close proximity to the consumer. Its source is the very life of the city. Printing, jewelry, tailoring and fashion are created and inspired by the very atmosphere of city life. We are talking about enterprises that directly serve the daily needs of urban residents, so their location can be allowed in the central parts of cities.

50. The business center, where public and private administrative institutions are located, should be well connected with residential and industrial areas, as well as with craft enterprises located in or near the central parts of cities

Administrative institutions have become important in modern life, so their placement in the city should be given special attention. The business center should be located at the intersection of transport arteries connecting residential and industrial zones, locations of handicraft enterprises, administrative offices, individual hotels, train stations and airports.

Movement

Results of observations

51. The modern street network in cities is a web of streets that has developed around the main roads, which began in ancient times. In European cities, the creation of these roads dates back to the Middle Ages and sometimes to antiquity

Some fortified cities or centers of colonization already had clear and compact plans at their inception. First, defensive fortifications with strictly geometric outlines were drawn onto the drawing; The main roads approached the fortifications. Inside, these cities also received a clear layout.

Another, more common type of town was created at the intersection of two major roads running across the country, or at the intersection of several radial roads. Roads are closely related to the topography of the area and therefore often had a winding route. The first houses were built along these roads. This was the beginning of the creation of main streets, to which, as the cities grew, numerous streets and alleys of secondary importance adjoined.

The directions of the main streets have always been dictated by certain geographical conditions. Over time, they could be rebuilt and restored again, but still they always retained the historical trace.

52. Large streets were built with pedestrians and horse-drawn vehicles in mind. Today they do not meet the requirements of mechanical transport

Ancient cities were surrounded by walls for protection. Therefore, they could not expand due to population growth. It was necessary to economically locate housing in order to accommodate the maximum number of people. This explains the close network of streets and alleys with many entrance doors. This approach to development led to the creation of a system of small neighborhoods with narrow facades of houses facing the streets and well-like courtyards.

Subsequently, when the walls were transferred to new frontiers, avenues and boulevards were created outside the historical core, within which the existing web of streets was preserved. These areas, which have long failed to meet the requirements of new times, continue to be preserved.

They continue to represent a system of small residential neighborhoods, a product of the historical development of cities. The facades of the houses face narrow streets and courtyards. The streets have frequent intersections. The street network created in ancient times is completely unsuited to the speeds of modern urban transport.

53. The dimensions of the streets of old cities do not meet the requirements of modern high-speed transport and hinder the development of these cities

The problem of transport arose due to the impossibility of matching the natural speeds of a pedestrian or horse with the mechanical speeds of cars, trams or buses. Their confusion is the cause of thousands of conflicts. A pedestrian moves under a constant threat to his life, while motorized transport is forced to brake endlessly, while remaining a mortal threat to pedestrians.

54. Distances between street intersections are too small

In order to develop the normal speed of mechanical transport, it is necessary to turn on the motor and gradually increase its speed. Braking should also not be instantaneous, as this spoils the engine. Therefore, a certain distance must be covered before the transport comes to a complete stop. But street intersections in modern cities, located at a distance of 100, 50, 20 and even 10 meters from one another, are not conducive to the normal movement of mechanical transport. These distances should reach 200-400 meters.

55. The width of the streets is insufficient. Street widening is a very expensive undertaking and does not always achieve its goal

There cannot be uniform standard dimensions for street widths. It all depends on the traffic intensity and street capacity. Historically, the main streets of cities, the routes of which in ancient times were determined by geographical and topographical conditions and which receive an infinite number of streams from secondary streets and alleys, have always been busy with traffic. Usually these streets are narrow, and their widening is sometimes very difficult and ineffective. Therefore, the reconstruction of old cities should pursue more fundamental goals.

56. With the introduction of mechanical transport, the street network of cities turned out to be irrational, lacking proper routing, flexibility, diversity and compliance with modern requirements

Organizing traffic in modern cities is a very complex matter. Highways must accommodate the movement of vehicles from one building to another, as well as similar movements of pedestrians. Buses and trams must travel at speeds determined by the schedule; trucks - make numerous trips along given routes; part of transport is to cross the city in transit.

It would seem that each of these routes should have its own route, ensuring normal and unhindered traffic. Therefore, the task is to carefully study the current state of the movement and develop proposals that will correctly solve this problem.

57. Main thoroughfares, created for representational purposes, could or may serve as a serious obstacle to traffic

What was acceptable and even magnificent in the days of pedestrians and carriages may today become the cause of constant inconvenience and danger. Some avenues, built to create a monumental perspective, ending with a monument or some kind of ceremonial building, are now dangerous places for delays and traffic jams. These urban planning compositions should not be oversaturated with modern mechanical transport, for which they were not created and to whose speeds they can never be adapted.

Traffic movement is the most important function of a modern city. Therefore, the transport program requires a serious and scientific solution capable of regulating its flows, creating the necessary duplicating directions, achieving the elimination of excessive congestion, traffic jams and associated inconveniences.

58. In most cases, when populated areas expand, the railway network becomes a serious obstacle to the urban redevelopment of cities. Railroad tracks cut through residential areas, disrupting the natural contacts of the urban population

And in this matter, events developed too quickly. The railroads were built before the rapid industrial development they generated. Currently, railway tracks have arbitrarily penetrated into cities and cut through residential areas. Crossing the railway track is not allowed, so it separates residential areas of cities, disrupting necessary contacts between the population.

In a number of places this creates serious difficulties in the development of urban agriculture. Therefore, the primary task of city planners is to immediately solve this problem by moving railway junctions outside the cities, which will ensure the normal functioning of city life.

We must demand

59. It is necessary to conduct thorough statistical studies of traffic flows in cities and their surrounding areas and develop new urban traffic patterns taking into account traffic intensity on individual highways

Traffic is a vital function of cities. Its current state should be expressed in graphs, which will especially clearly reveal stressed nodes, which is necessary for the development of project proposals. The projects will be able to provide for the separation of traffic flows for pedestrians, cars, freight and transit transport. Each highway must receive characteristics and dimensions that ensure its transport function. In addition, special attention should be paid to intersections and junctions of streams.

60. Roads and highways must be classified in accordance with their purpose and built in accordance with the speeds and nature of the transport carried on them

In ancient times, there were single streets along which pedestrians and riders moved simultaneously, and only at the end of the 18th century. After the introduction of carriages and carriages, the first sidewalks appeared. In the 20th century a mass of mechanical transport - bicycles, motorcycles, trams, cars with their high speeds - fell on the old streets like a disaster. The staggering growth of some cities, such as New York, has caused enormous traffic congestion in some areas.

The time has come to take decisive measures to correct the situation that is becoming disastrous. The first reasonable measure would be to separate the flow of pedestrians and vehicles on the busiest highways. Secondly, freight transport should be sent along roads specially designated for this purpose. Thirdly, this is the creation of expressways for transit transport and secondary roads for light urban traffic.

61. Tense road intersections should be dealt with at different levels

Cars traveling in transit should not linger at all intersections, needlessly slowing down traffic there. The best way to solve this problem would be to create an intersection at different levels at every intersection. For ease of movement, large transit highways at certain distances must have branches for connections with ordinary city streets.

62. A pedestrian should be able to move on roads free of vehicles

This will be a complete reconstruction of urban movement, the most reasonable, opening a new page in the history of urban planning.

Such a requirement regarding the organization of traffic in its significance can only be compared with the prohibition of the north orientation of the home.

63. Streets should be differentiated depending on their purpose: residential streets, walking streets, transit highways, main arteries

Streets must perform specific functions according to their various purposes. Residential streets and areas designated for public use require the creation of certain conditions.

In order to ensure peace, quiet and well-being for the home and its “continuation” in nature, mechanical transport should be diverted to special highways. Transit highways will connect with city streets only at their entry points. The main arteries providing connections with surrounding areas and other cities will be the most important communication roads. In addition, walking streets will be designated where limited vehicle speeds will not disrupt pedestrian movement.

64. Expressways must be fenced with green areas

Transit and express roads will be separated from the main city highways and, therefore, from residential areas. But they still need to be fenced with a dense green barrier.

Historical heritage of cities

65. Historical architectural values ​​(individual monuments or urban planning ensembles) must be preserved

The life of a city is a historical phenomenon passing through centuries, the memory of which remains in architectural monuments. These monuments give the city its unique character. These are precious witnesses of the past, which over time acquire historical and spiritual value. In addition, these buildings capture the features of the highest rise in the artistic creativity of the people. Monuments are part of the world's historical heritage, so every effort must be made to preserve them today and for times to come.

66. They will be preserved if, being national cultural values, they are also of interest as monuments of world culture

In assessing the artistic significance of monuments, it is necessary to distinguish true values ​​from works of little value. Not everything old is worthy of preservation, so selection must be made with great skill and wisdom.

In the event that the interests of city reconstruction suffer from our desire to preserve a number of monuments of past eras, a reasonable solution should be found that reconciles opposing points of view. If we are talking about monuments that exist in several copies, then some of them should be preserved as historical samples and the rest should be destroyed. In other cases, it is advisable to preserve and restore the most valuable part, adapting the rest for the needs of the city. And finally, in exceptional cases, it is allowed to move monuments that are of great historical and aesthetic value, but interfere with reconstruction work.

67. If the conservation of historical values ​​is associated with the preservation of unsanitary living conditions of the population, then...

Excessive cult of antiquity should not neglect the laws of social justice. There are lovers and connoisseurs of antiquity who, out of blind admiration for the aesthetic qualities of the latter, defend the need to preserve a number of picturesque old quarters, regardless of the poverty, overcrowding and diseases that arise among people living in such conditions. In such cases, it is necessary to carefully examine and, perhaps, make a compromise and the wisest decision. But under no circumstances should slum housing, which morally oppresses people, be preserved.

68. If the demolition of valuable works of architecture is the only possible proposal for solving a transport or other urban planning problem, then in some cases the issue of moving the planned complex or structure to another location should be considered

The rapid growth of a city can sometimes put planners into a dead end, from which it is possible to get out only at the cost of sacrifice. Let us assume that objects that represent an obstacle must be demolished. But if this proposal forces the demolition of genuine architectural, historical or cultural values, then it is better, of course, to try to find a different solution. Instead of eliminating the obstacle that disrupts traffic, the highway route should be changed and bypassed or a tunnel should be built under it. Finally, it is possible to move a complex administrative and transport hub to a new location and completely redesign the highway system in a congested area of ​​the city. Ingenuity and imagination, combined with the use of modern technology, will always help solve such problems.

69. Demolition of slums surrounding historical monuments will provide an opportunity to create green spaces

It happens that the demolition of dilapidated houses and slum areas around a valuable historical monument disrupts the color of the environment that has been formed over centuries. This phenomenon is unfortunate, but inevitable. This situation should be used to create green spaces. In this case, historical monuments will find themselves in a different, sometimes unexpected, but still acceptable environment. But at the same time, the urban planning situation of the adjacent neighborhoods will improve significantly.

70. The use of archaic architectural elements to design new buildings erected in the area of ​​historical monuments under the pretext of their architectural coherence can lead to disastrous consequences. Such creative proposals should not be allowed

Such methods contradict the experience of history. A return to the past was never encouraged, a person never moved backwards. The masterpieces of past eras convince us that each generation thought in its own way, created art and aesthetics, using the best technical achievements of its time in its creativity.

To slavishly copy the past is to condemn oneself to a lie, it is to create something that is, in principle, false, because modern buildings will not be built using ancient methods, and the construction of archaic structures using modern construction technology can only lead to meaningless imitation of the works of past eras.

By mixing the old with the new, it is impossible to create a truly ensemble solution characterized by unity of style. This will be pure imitation, interfering with the perception of the true monument of art, for the sake of which such an unreasonable initiative was taken.

III. Conclusion. Basic provisions of the doctrine

71. Most of the cities studied today present a chaotic spectacle: they absolutely do not meet their main purpose - to satisfy the urgent biological and physiological needs of their population

In connection with the preparation for the Athens Congress, national sections of the International Congresses on Contemporary Architecture (CIAM) examined 33 cities: Amsterdam, Athens, Brussels, Baltimore, Bandung, Budapest, Berlin, Barcelona, ​​Charleroi, Cologne, Como, Dalatu, Detroit, Dessau, Frankfurt , Geneva, Genoa, The Hague, Los Angeles, Latakia, London, Madrid, Oslo, Paris, Prague, Rome, Rotterdam, Stockholm, Utrecht, Verona, Warsaw, Zagreb and Zurich. They give a complete picture of the history of the development of the white race in different climatic conditions and at different latitudes.

All cities testify to the same thing - the introduction of machine technology disrupted the existing relative order. None of the cities showed any serious attempts to adapt to the new conditions. In all these cities, people are oppressed by everything that surrounds them. In the cities, nothing that is necessary for human health and the flourishing of his spiritual life has been preserved or restored. These cities bear the stamp of a general crisis of humanity spreading everywhere. The city no longer fulfills its function - to protect people, and to protect them well.

72. This situation, which arose with the beginning of the era of machine technology, is explained by the constantly increasing advance of private interests

The predominance of private interests, born of the thirst for personal gain and wealth, is the basis of this regrettable situation.

The forces that contributed to the development of machine technology did nothing to prevent the damage it caused, for which no one is now essentially responsible.

Over the course of a century, enterprises were built spontaneously. The construction of housing and factories, railways, highways and the laying of waterways was carried out in incredible haste under the sign of individual acquisitiveness, and there was no talk of any pre-developed plans or thoughtful actions. But today the evil happened. Cities are not suitable for human life. The cruel intransigence of certain private interests has given rise to the misfortune of a huge number of people.

73. The inexorable cruelty of private interests has caused a disastrous imbalance between the development of the productive forces, on the one hand, and the weakness of state leadership and the impotence of social solidarity, on the other.

Feelings of administrative responsibility and social solidarity are trampled and belittled daily by the constantly advancing and renewed force of private interest.

These oppositely directed sources of energy are in constant confrontation, and when one of them attacks, the second defends itself. Unfortunately, in this unequal struggle, private interests often win.

But the victory of evil can sometimes give birth to good. The enormous material and moral destruction of modern cities may ultimately lead to the birth of urban legislation, based on which the authorities will gain the necessary authority to protect human dignity and bear responsibility for the health of the urban population.

74. Despite the fact that cities are constantly being rebuilt, their reconstruction is carried out without a specific plan and control, as well as without taking into account modern urban planning science, which is the fruit of the work of highly qualified specialists

The principles of modern urban planning were developed as a result of the work of a huge number of specialists: builders, doctors, sociologists. They are presented in articles, books, congress materials, public and private discussions. But the task is to force government agencies and government officials to be guided by these principles, since they are entrusted with responsibility for the fate of cities. However, these bodies are often quite hostile to bold proposals for urban renewal based on modern scientific foundations.

First of all, we must convince the authorities to act in the right direction. Vision and energy will help you reach agreed upon solutions.

75. The city should ensure the spiritual and material freedom of the individual and promote the flourishing of collective activity

Personal freedom and collective action are the two poles between which human life flows. All measures to improve the human condition must take both factors into account. If the measures taken are unable to satisfy these often conflicting demands, then they are doomed to inevitable failure.

Harmonious satisfaction of both requirements can be ensured only if there is a carefully thought-out program that excludes any random actions.

76. Everything that is created in the city must correspond to the scale of a person

The natural dimensions of a person should form the basis of the scale of everything that is connected with his life and various activities. This refers to the scale of sizes and areas, the scale of distances set taking into account the natural speed of human movement, the scale of the daily routine, linked to the speed of the daily movement of the sun.

77. The keys of modern urban planning are in four functions: live, work, relax (in free hours), move around

Urban planning expresses the essence of the era. Until our time, it dealt mainly with one problem - the organization of movement. Urban planners limited themselves to laying out avenues and streets that formed residential areas, the development of which was left to private initiative. This was a narrow understanding of the city planner's mission.

In our time, urban planning is called upon to perform four main functions:

Firstly, to provide a person with a healthy home, which means placing the home in places and spaces provided with fresh air and sun, that is, in truly “natural conditions”;

Secondly, organize places of labor in such a way that they turn from places of heavy enslavement into places of natural and joyful human labor;

Thirdly, provide everything necessary to organize free time in such a way that it is spent with benefit and pleasure;

Fourth, provide convenient connections between these places, creating transport networks capable of satisfying the city's population and the requirements of each of its zones.

These functions cover a huge scope of activity. Urban planning is a consequence of a certain way of thinking brought into the lives of people as a result of their active and purposeful activities.

78. Urban planning projects will determine the structure of each of the sectors that make up the four key functions, as well as their location in the overall city plan

In order to ensure the implementation of the key urban planning functions proclaimed by the CIAM Athens Congress, they must be implemented in the broadest and fullest sense of purpose. It is necessary to establish order and classify the conditions of modern life of people, the conditions of their work, the breadth of cultural needs, in order to then create the most favorable conditions for their satisfaction and flourishing.

Pursuing these goals, urban planning will change the face of cities, destroy existing and outdated contradictions in their life and open up the necessary opportunities for creative activity.

Key functions must be autonomous, they will be implemented on the basis of data dictated by climate, topography, and customs. They will provide a basis for the development of territories and the placement of structures. The development of cities and populated areas should be carried out on the basis of the widespread use of advanced technology.

When creating and planning populated areas, the vital needs of people and each person individually will be taken into account, and not the selfish interests of private groups. Urban planning should ensure personal freedom while promoting the flourishing of social activities.

79. The cycle of daily human functions - live, work, rest (recuperation) - will be determined in urban planning taking into account maximum time savings. Housing should be the focus of urban planning activities and the starting point for determining the size of territories

At first glance it may seem that the desire to recreate “natural conditions” Everyday life is associated with the uncontrolled growth of cities on the plane, but in reality this is dictated by the need to regulate the time budget of human activity in accordance with the length of the day, since significant human movements can take away the time allotted for rest.

The focus of the urban planner is the dwelling, so its placement in the city plan must be consistent with the length of the day, equal to 24 hours. This measure makes it possible to accurately distribute people’s activities over time and correctly solve urban planning problems.

80. New mechanical speeds have brought fundamental changes to the urban environment, creating a constant threat to the lives of the population, causing endless traffic jams that paralyze urban traffic, as well as worsening hygienic conditions

Mechanical transport, due to its high speeds, was supposed to provide great time savings. But accumulations and traffic jams disrupt traffic, becoming hotbeds of constant danger. Cars are increasingly harmful to the health of urban populations. Exhaust fumes floating in the air affect the lungs, and the incessant noise of engines affects the nervous system. The high speeds of modern cars have given rise to a love of long-distance travel to picturesque corners of nature. The unbridled desire for long trips has disrupted the normal rhythm family life and the rhythm of social life in general. People spend long, tiring hours behind the wheel, gradually losing the habit of the most natural and healthy way of transportation - walking.

81. The principles of organizing intra-city and long-distance movement should be revised. It is necessary to classify existing speeds. Reorganization of zoning in accordance with the key functions of urban planning will create convenient natural connections between zones and a rational network of main highways

Zoning, carried out in accordance with the key functions of “live, work, rest,” will streamline urban areas. The fourth function - movement should pursue only one goal - to connect the other three in the most convenient way. Thus, a radical reconstruction is inevitable.

The city and its surrounding suburban areas must be provided with a road network that allows for the most efficient use of the capabilities of modern vehicles. All types of transport should be classified and differentiated, providing each of them with independent routes. A reasonably organized transport network will not disrupt the normal life of residential and industrial areas.

82. Urban planning is a science of three, not two dimensions. High-rise construction will provide the necessary conditions for organizing a modern network of roads and recreational facilities through the creation and use of free areas

The key functions of “live, work and play” inside buildings require the provision of three necessary conditions - sufficient space, sun and fresh air. The dimensions of erected structures depend not only on the occupied territory with two dimensions, but especially on the third - height. Only through high-rise construction will urban planning obtain the free areas needed for road networks and for green spaces intended for recreation.

It should be borne in mind that inside buildings the third dimension plays a very important role, referring to vertical movements. As for urban transport, two dimensions are used here - mainly movement on the ground, and only in exceptional cases rise to a small height when decoupling flows at different levels.

83. City planning should be carried out simultaneously with the preparation of a regional planning project. Instead of the usual municipal plans, there should be a single master plan for the city and its zones of influence. The boundaries of the agglomeration will be determined by the radius of the city’s economic ties

The initial data of the city general plan must take into account the entire complex of territories economically connected with the city. Economic justification for the city plan should include stages of its gradual development. Similar work should be carried out in the regions adjacent to the city. This will allow us to make a correct forecast of the comprehensive development of the city. Then it will be possible to develop proposals for expanding or limiting individual areas, taking into account the local characteristics of a given city and its surroundings. In the end, everyone locality will receive a certain place and significance in the economic system of the entire country. Scientific approach to planning work will allow establishing the boundaries of economic regions. Only in this case can we talk about genuine urban planning, ensuring an even distribution of resources throughout the economic region and the entire country.

84. On the basis of a functionally drawn up plan, the harmonious development of the city and all its parts will be ensured. As the urban area grows, free spaces and new networks of streets and highways will organically fit into it

The creation of the city will be carried out as construction carried out according to a pre-designed project based on the instructions of the master plan. People who know how to look forward will outline the paths for its future development. Their project will provide for the scale of future construction, determine the nature of the populated area and determine the boundaries of the future territory.

Built according to a plan linked to the regional layout, taking into account four key functions, the city will no longer be a collection of randomly erected buildings. The expansion of the city will not create a catastrophic situation, but, on the contrary, will lead it to prosperity. The growth of the urban population will no longer be accompanied by a fierce struggle for existence, characteristic of cities created in the past.

85. There is an urgent need to develop development plans for each city and issue laws to ensure their implementation

Chance will give way to foresight, the project will replace improvisation. Each project will be designed taking into account the district planning plan; territories will be distributed according to a specific purpose. Work to implement the project will be carried out immediately and in stages. The approved “Law on the Distribution of Urban Areas” will ensure the most favorable implementation of planning, taking into account key functions, which means placing developments in the best areas and establishing optimal distances.

The project must also identify reserve areas for future development. The law will be able to authorize or prohibit construction, it will promote the implementation of rational proposals and see that they are carried out according to a master plan and are always in accordance with the collective interests.

86. The design program must be drawn up as a result of scientific research carried out by specialists. It must provide for stages of consistent development in time and space. The program should bring together information about the natural resources of the territories and general topography, as well as economic data, analysis of sociological research and spiritual needs

Development will no longer be carried out according to random schemes drawn up by a topographer, haphazardly placing piles of houses and land plots.

It will be a truly biological structure with regularly placed and therefore correctly functioning organs. Land resources will be studied and taken into account and general studies of the area will be carried out in order to identify and make the best use of natural factors. The main transport routes will be laid taking into account their maximum efficiency and equipped according to their purpose. A specially designed schedule will determine economic development cities. Immutable laws will ensure the creation of good-quality housing, improved working conditions and the wise use of free time.

87. The yardstick and dimensional scale for an architect-urban planner will be the scale of a person

After the period of degradation of the fruitless form-making of the past century, architecture must again be put at the service of man.

No one is capable of fulfilling this mission except the architect, who has excellent knowledge of man. The architect must discard illusory projection and mobilize his creative abilities to create a city that carries true poetry.

88. Housing (apartment) is the fundamental core of urban planning. Combining a group of apartments into a single organism forms a residential unit of appropriate size

If the cell is the primary element in biology, then the family hearth is the cell of the social environment. The creation of this center, which has been dominated by cruel games and speculation for more than a century, must turn into a humane activity. The home is the primary stage of urban planning. It makes a person’s life easier, protects his everyday joys and sorrows. It must be penetrated by the sun, saturated with fresh air and be continued outside the home in the form of a number of public institutions.

In order to the best way to organize everyday and cultural services (food, education, medical care, recreation), it is necessary to group apartments into residential units of the appropriate size.

89. The creation of Housing Units will allow for the establishment within the city of optimal connections between housing, work and recreational facilities

The main task that should attract the attention of the urban planner is the creation of optimal living conditions. The conditions for production activities should also be significantly improved. Office buildings, enterprises, factories must be equipped with the necessary set of household devices capable of ensuring the fulfillment of the second function - labor.

And finally, you need to constantly take care of the third function, which involves healthy rest, strengthening the body and spirit. All these responsibilities fall on city planners.

90. In order to fulfill this important task, it is necessary to widely use the advanced achievements of modern science, technology and the art of construction

The era of machine technology gave birth to new capacities, which became one of the reasons that disrupted the usual order in cities. And despite this, it is precisely the powers of our century that must contribute to their decisive reconstruction. New technical means brought with them new methods of work, made work easier and gave rise to updated measurement scales. They opened a truly new page in the history of architecture. Modern construction is characterized by a variety of building types and an unprecedented complexity of design solutions. In order to fulfill the tasks assigned to him, the architect must resort to the help of numerous specialists at all stages of the work.

91. The scale of new construction will depend on the sum of political, social and economic factors

The introduction of the Law on the Development of Urban Areas and the introduction of new construction methods alone will not solve the problems of urban reconstruction. To achieve this, the presence of three factors is necessary: ​​decisive, insightful and firm power, purposefully aimed at implementing the developed, design solutions; a population aware of the need for urban redevelopment and persistently pursuing it; finally, a strong economic position allowing for significant work to be undertaken and carried out.

But sometimes circumstances may develop in such a way that, in an extremely unfavorable political and economic situation, an urgent and urgent need arises for a decisive expansion of the scale of construction. In this case, the authorities are forced to mobilize all the necessary resources and begin major planning and construction work.

92. In these circumstances, architecture becomes of paramount importance

Architecture determines the fate of a city. Architecture determines the structure of the home, the fundamental basis of the urban planning plan. The quality of the built home and its ability to bring joy to people depend on the architect. Architecture groups dwellings into large complexes based on precise calculations.

The architecture determines in advance the location of free spaces and indicates the location of structures. It creates extensions of dwellings, indicates the most favorable places for the location of industrial enterprises and recreation areas, develops transport network diagrams and thereby ensures the establishment of contacts between different zones. Architecture is responsible for organizing favorable living conditions and the beauty of the city. It is she who points out the ways for the creation and reconstruction of populated areas, rationally plans the territory, achieving optimal living conditions for the population, harmoniously and wisely distributing elements of improvement and public services. Architecture is the basis of everything.

93. The enormous scale of urban reconstruction and improvement work required and the existence of countless private land holdings represent two antagonistic circumstances

It is necessary to immediately begin carrying out enormous reconstruction work, since all ancient and modern cities of the world are characterized by the same vices generated by similar reasons. These works can only be carried out if the program being implemented is part of a single regional planning project and the city master plan. The project can be implemented in fragments, provided that part of the territory is immediately developed and subsequent work is scheduled for a more distant period. Numerous private properties must be expropriated and properly documented. At these moments, vile speculative operations are dangerous, which often completely paralyze major events aimed at the public good.

Expropriation under conditions of private ownership of land and buildings is a complex problem for the city, its surroundings, as well as on the scale of larger territories occupying entire regions.

94. The brutal contradictions we have noted represent the most difficult problem of the era. The task is to solve it in the shortest possible time through legislation, ensuring the possibility of rational development of the territory and creating the necessary conditions to fully satisfy the vital needs of the individual and the entire society

For many years, around the world, any attempt to begin urban renewal was frustrated by the ossified laws of private property. The land and the entire territory of the country must be freely provided for urban development needs at a fairly established cost. When it comes to the general interest, land should be subject to acquisition without any restrictions.

Peoples suffer many hardships and troubles due to the fact that they were not prepared for the invasion of new technology and the associated consequences that disorganized personal and public life. Neglect of urban planning laws is the cause of the anarchy that reigns in urban development and the location of industry. The lack of urban planning legislation led to the devastation of villages, to the reckless overpopulation of cities, to excessive concentration and chaotic distribution of industry. Workers' homes turned into slums. Nothing was done anywhere to protect people. The result is catastrophic, and the situation is similar in almost all countries. This is the sad result of a century of spontaneous development of machine technology.

95. Private interest must be subordinated to the interests of the collective

Left to his own devices, a person will inevitably find himself crushed by the difficulties befalling him, which he is not able to overcome alone. Forced to constantly unquestioningly obey the will of the collective, he loses his individuality. Personal law and collective law must be combined with each other, mutually enrich and coordinate their capabilities by combining the positive and constructive qualities inherent in each of them. Personal right has nothing to do with greedy private interest. The latter, which serves to enrich the minority and condemns the masses of people to a miserable existence, is worthy of the most merciless eradication. Private interest must be subordinated to collective interests everywhere. And then all opportunities will be open to each individual to satisfy his aspirations for the well-being of the family hearth and the beauty of populated areas.

IV. Brief information about international congresses on modern architecture

1928 Creation of CIAM

Thanks to the generous hospitality of Madame Hélène de Mandro, a group of innovative modern architects gathered in 1928 in Switzerland at the Sarraz Vaux Castle.

After discussing pressing issues of architecture and construction according to a program previously developed in Paris, they decided to unite in order to help raise architecture to the level of the tasks facing it. Thus, an association was created, which received the name “International Congresses on Contemporary Architecture” - CIAM.

Sarraz Declaration

The undersigned architects, representing national groups of modern architects, declare complete unity of views on the basic concepts of architecture and on the nature of their professional responsibilities.

They argue that the activity called “construction” is an elementary human activity inseparably linked with the development of life. The purpose of architecture is to express the spirit of the era. They declare the need to develop a new architectural concept that would satisfy the material, spiritual and aesthetic needs of modern life.

Taking into account the profound upheavals caused by the machine age, they believe that the changes that have occurred in the field social life and the economic system must lead with fatal necessity to corresponding changes in architecture.

They united in order to achieve a harmonious unity of all that is characteristic modern world, and in order to return architecture to its true meaning. They believe that architecture should serve the benefit of people in an economic and social sense. Only in this case will architecture be saved from the suffocating dominance of academies.

Convinced of their views, they declare that they have united in order to put their ideas into practice.

General development line

The development interests of each country require the inextricable unity of architecture with plans for the development of the national economy.

The desire to increase productivity and "profitability", considered an axiom of modern life, should not pursue only commercial goals of maximizing profits, it should be seen as the need to obtain products in quantities sufficient to fully satisfy human needs.

True profitability in the construction business can only be achieved as a result of the rationalization of the production process, the introduction and normalization of industrial methods in the creation of a work of modern architecture.

Instead of adopting degenerate, artisanal methods of construction, architecture must urgently take advantage of the enormous advantages of modern technology, without fear that this will lead to the creation of works that differ in many respects from those built in past eras.

Urban planning

Urban planning is the development and improvement of various populated areas and territories intended for the development of material, spiritual and aesthetic life in all its individual and collective manifestations.

It covers the design and development of cities and rural areas.

Urban planning cannot serve purely aesthetic purposes. This is essentially a functional phenomenon.

The three main functions that urban planning should deal with are: 1) living; 2) work; 3) rest. Its main tasks should be considered: a) placement on the territory; b) organization of traffic; c) development of legislative documents.

The current state of populated areas does not provide a rational combination of the above three main functions. It is necessary to redevelop the territories of the corresponding three zones and determine the ratio of the areas of built-up and vacant territories. Housing densities and transport networks should also be reconsidered. Instead of the senseless distribution of land plots carried out as a result of sales, speculation and private transactions, it is necessary to carry out their redistribution on the basis of new land legislation. The new redistribution of land based on the requirements of modern urban planning will ensure fair satisfaction of private and public interests.

Architecture and public opinion

It is necessary for architects to influence public opinion and introduce them to the means and possibilities of modern architecture.

Academic education distorted the tastes of the general public, and it did not address the pressing issues of housing construction at all. The public is poorly informed, so consumers are not even able to formulate their requirements for modern housing. In addition, housing issues have been out of sight of most architects for a long time.

General knowledge on housing issues does not exceed the theoretical knowledge acquired by people in primary school. It is necessary that the new generation has a clear idea of ​​what a complete and healthy home should be. Thus prepared, a new generation of future architect clients will be able to present their demands on vital housing issues that have been neglected for too long.

Architecture and the state

Architects filled with a strong desire to work for the good modern society, believe that academies are slowing down social progress, bowing to antiquity and ignoring the problems of housing in the name of purely decorative and ceremonial architecture.

By taking over education, academies are compromising the title of architect. Since the bulk of government design commissions go through the academies, the latter prevent the penetration of a new spirit into architecture.

Without the introduction of modern ideas into the business of construction and architecture, their renewal and advancement are impossible.

CIAM Goals

The goals of CIAM are to formulate the tasks of the creative development of modern architecture, to introduce these ideas into the technical, economic and social spheres, and to achieve the realization of the ideals of modern architecture.

1952. Urban family hearth. Published by Lund Humphrey. London (in English)

1954. City center. Publisher Ulriko Hep. Milan (in Italian)

Option No. 3041198

When completing tasks with a short answer, enter in the answer field the number that corresponds to the number of the correct answer, or a number, a word, a sequence of letters (words) or numbers. The answer should be written without spaces or any additional characters. Separate the fractional part from the whole decimal point. There is no need to write units of measurement. The answers to tasks 1-20 are a number, or a sequence of numbers, or a word (phrase). Write your answers without spaces, commas, or other additional characters. By completing task 29, you can demonstrate your knowledge and skills in the content that is more attractive to you. For this purpose, select only one of the proposed statements (29.1-29.5).

If the option is specified by the teacher, you can enter or upload answers to tasks with a detailed answer into the system. The teacher will see the results of completing tasks with a short answer and will be able to evaluate the downloaded answers to tasks with a long answer. The scores assigned by the teacher will appear in your statistics.

Version for printing and copying in MS Word

Write down the word missing in the table.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACTIVITIES

Answer:

In the row below, find a concept that is generalizing for all other concepts presented. Write this word down.

Share, bond, bill, security, check.

Answer:

Below is a list of terms. All of them, with the exception of two, relate to political institutions.

2) parliamentarism

3) property

6) university

Find two terms that “fall out” from the general series and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

Answer:

Select correct judgments about the formational approach to the study of society and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.

1) The formational approach to the study of society was most fully formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels.

2) Within the framework of the formational approach, the leading role in the development of society is assigned to ideological and cultural factors.

3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level.

4) The formational approach assumes the universal nature of the laws of social development.

5) The formational approach emphasizes the uniqueness and diversity of various geographical and historical forms of society.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between religions and their types: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

A Center for the Study of Global Environmental Problems has been created in country Z. What problems can be the object of study in this center? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) “North-South” problem

2) climate warming

3) rising sea levels

4) spread of the AIDS virus

5) ozone holes

6) global overpopulation

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about economic crises and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The economic crisis is an integral part of the economic cycle.

2) Economic crises are typical for all types of economies.

3) The economic crisis is characterized by a sharp drop in production volumes.

4) The economic crisis is characterized by rising unemployment and falling real incomes of the population.

5) An economic crisis is always characterized by high inflation.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between the objects of study of economic science and its sections.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

In country T, the intensive path of economic development predominates. Which of the following factors indicate this? Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) increase in labor productivity

2) low inflation

3) employment growth

4) growth in household savings

5) increasing the share of high-tech goods in exports

6) dissemination of resource-saving technologies

Answer:

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about moral standards and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) Moral standards are based on public perceptions about good and evil.

2) Moral norms develop gradually in the process of development of society.

3) Moral standards are formalized in legal acts.

4) Moral standards vary in different social groups.

5) Compliance with moral standards is ensured by the power of state coercion.

Answer:

Among different age categories of the population of country Z, a sociological survey was conducted on the topic: “What social institutions Do you trust the most?” Its results are shown in the diagram.

Find in the list below the conclusions that can be drawn from the diagram and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) In all age groups, the school is the least trusted.

2) Representatives of the older age group trust the church the most.

3) The level of trust in school in the middle age group is higher than in other groups.

4) Family is the most trusted place in all age groups.

5) The level of trust in school and church is approximately the same in all age groups.

Answer:

Choose the correct statements about the presidential republic and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The President is elected by Parliament.

2) The President heads the executive branch of government.

3) The government is responsible both to the president and to parliament.

4) The President does not have the right to veto laws passed by Parliament.

5) The President does not have the right to dissolve parliament.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between powers and public authorities Russian Federation: For each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

Party N stands for the preservation of the existing political system and economic structure. What other provisions of Party N’s program indicate that it adheres to a conservative ideology? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) active foreign policy

2) protection of traditional religious and national values

3) reduction of taxes on large businesses

4) support for the development of science and education

5) the natural nature of social inequality

6) ensuring the rights and freedoms of man and citizen

Answer:

What duties are established for citizens by the Constitution of the Russian Federation? Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) pay legally established taxes and fees

2) work for the good of society

3) receive secondary general education

4) preserve nature and the environment

5) defend the Fatherland

Answer:

Choose the correct judgments about disciplinary responsibility and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) Disciplinary liability arises if an employee violates labor discipline.

2) The commission of a disciplinary offense by an employee always entails the application of disciplinary measures to him.

3) The imposition of a disciplinary sanction is always formalized by a written order of the employer.

4) The employer may apply any disciplinary measures to the employee that are not prohibited by law.

5) An employee may challenge the disciplinary sanction imposed on him.

Answer:

Establish a correspondence between legal facts and their types: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D

Answer:

A criminal case has been opened against Mikhail Romanov on charges of causing grievous bodily harm. Under what conditions is Mikhail NOT subject to criminal liability? Write down the numbers under which the relevant conditions are indicated. Enter the numbers in ascending order.

1) The harm was caused in a state of passion.

2) The harm was caused in a state of necessary defense.

3) The harm was caused in a state of extreme necessity.

4) the harm was caused while intoxicated

5) The harm was caused in a state of insanity.

6) The harm was caused due to a combination of difficult life circumstances.

Answer:

Read the text below, in which a number of words are missing.

Select from the list provided the words that need to be inserted in place of the gaps.

Social ____________ (A) characterizes differences in the position of people and their associations in relation to each other. It existed in society at different stages of its development, but for each period there were certain features and characteristics inherent in that particular era. People in society, as we know from history, were not equal in their status; there was always a division into rich and poor, respected

and the despised, the successful and the unsuccessful.

Ancient and medieval society was characterized by a division into ______________(B), that is, groups of people with certain rights and _____________(B), transmitted by inheritance. Some of these groups had _____________ (G) - special rights that elevated these people and allowed them to live at the expense of others. An example would be the nobility in Russian Empire. And, on the contrary, the vast majority of people in the country were deprived of even basic human rights. Serfs were the property of the landowners; they could be bought and sold, even children separately from their parents.

With the beginning of the industrial revolution, the structure of society changed, the main social groups became ___________(D). The new division is carried out, first of all, according to the place of people in the economic system, in relation to _______________(E), according to the amount of income they receive. Such social affiliation is not inherited, social mobility is not regulated in any way, much depends on the person himself.

The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used once. Choose one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.

List of terms:

The table below shows the letters representing the missing words. Write down the number of the word you chose in the table under each letter.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

A	B	IN	G	D	E

Answer:

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

What three purposes of state sovereignty are indicated by the author? Using social science knowledge and facts public life, name another purpose of state sovereignty not indicated in the text.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

A modern state is unthinkable without the idea of ​​sovereignty...

It is difficult to establish the source of state sovereignty. But nevertheless, this is a real phenomenon. In this territory there is no power higher than the state. It is sovereign over all other powers in a given territory. As P.I. Novgorodtsev noted, the supreme power is one and indivisible in the sense that under no circumstances “can it allow another power to stand above it and next to it.”

The state as a subject of law protects society, state formation, the indivisibility of a single territory, and finally collectivity... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty lies in the fact that the power of the state stands above all other specific forms and manifestations of power on this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles, such as the unity and indivisibility of the territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violates the borders of a given state or forces it to make one or another decision that does not meet the national interests of its people, then we can talk about a violation of its sovereignty. And this a clear sign the weakness of a given state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is intended to ensure... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the pre-state state, state law from primitive law, etc. The state, wrote the French jurist of the 19th century. A. Esmen, “is the subject and support of public power.” This power, which essentially does not recognize a superior or competing power over itself in the relations over which it governs, is called sovereignty. It has two sides: internal sovereignty, or the right to rule over all the citizens who make up the nation, and even all who live on the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to ensure territorial integrity and non-interference in internal affairs by external forces...

Another important instrument and attribute of the state that ensures its universality is the law. In a certain sense, law is an expression of sovereignty. The law has a form of universality in the sense that its legality and authority must be recognized by everyone, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

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The next page will ask you to check them yourself.

What three principles of sovereignty does the author name? Using facts of public life and personal social experience, give an example of how each of these principles is implemented in the activities of the state.

Read the text and complete tasks 21-24.

A modern state is unthinkable without the idea of ​​sovereignty...

It is difficult to establish the source of state sovereignty. But nevertheless, this is a real phenomenon. In this territory there is no power higher than the state. It is sovereign over all other powers in a given territory. As P.I. Novgorodtsev noted, the supreme power is one and indivisible in the sense that under no circumstances “can it allow another power to stand above it and next to it.”

The state as a subject of law protects society, state formation, the indivisibility of a single territory, and finally collectivity... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty lies in the fact that the power of the state stands above all other specific forms and manifestations of power on this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles as the unity and indivisibility of territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violates the borders of a given state or forces it to make one or another decision that does not meet the national interests of its people, then we can talk about a violation of its sovereignty. And this is a clear sign of the weakness of this state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is intended to ensure... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the pre-state state, state law from primitive law, etc. The state, wrote the French jurist of the 19th century. A. Esmen, “is the subject and support of public power.” This power, which essentially does not recognize a superior or competing power over itself in the relations over which it governs, is called sovereignty. It has two sides: internal sovereignty, or the right to rule over all the citizens who make up the nation, and even all who live on the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to ensure territorial integrity and non-interference in internal affairs by external forces...

Another important instrument and attribute of the state that ensures its universality is the law. In a certain sense, law is an expression of sovereignty. The law has a form of universality in the sense that its legality and authority must be recognized by everyone, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

(K. S. Gadzhiev)

The state as a subject of law protects society, state formation, the indivisibility of a single territory, and finally collectivity... From this point of view, the universality of sovereignty lies in the fact that the power of the state stands above all other specific forms and manifestations of power on this territory. Therefore, it is natural that state sovereignty includes such fundamental principles as the unity and indivisibility of territory, the inviolability of territorial borders and non-interference in internal affairs. If any foreign state or external force violates the borders of a given state or forces it to make one or another decision that does not meet the national interests of its people, then we can talk about a violation of its sovereignty. And this is a clear sign of the weakness of this state and its inability to ensure its own sovereignty and national-state interests.

Sovereignty is intended to ensure... the preservation of legal and power systems. It provides criteria for distinguishing the state from the pre-state state, state law from primitive law, etc. The state, wrote the French jurist of the 19th century. A. Esmen, “is the subject and support of public power.” This power, which essentially does not recognize a superior or competing power over itself in the relations over which it governs, is called sovereignty. It has two sides: internal sovereignty, or the right to rule over all the citizens who make up the nation, and even all who live on the national territory, and external sovereignty, designed to ensure territorial integrity and non-interference in internal affairs by external forces...

Another important instrument and attribute of the state that ensures its universality is the law. In a certain sense, law is an expression of sovereignty. The law has a form of universality in the sense that its legality and authority must be recognized by everyone, and, accordingly, everyone must obey it.

Solutions to long-answer tasks are not automatically checked.
The next page will ask you to check them yourself.

Choose one of the statements below and write a mini-essay based on it.

Identify, at your discretion, one or more main ideas of the topic raised by the author and expand on it (them). When revealing the main idea(s) you have identified in your reasoning and conclusions, use social science knowledge (relevant concepts, theoretical positions), illustrating them with facts and examples from public life and personal social experience, examples from other educational items.

To illustrate the theoretical positions, reasoning and conclusions you have formulated, please provide at least two facts/examples from various sources. Each given fact/example must be formulated in detail and clearly related to the illustrated position, reasoning, and conclusion.

29.1 Philosophy:“Those doubts that theory does not resolve, practice will resolve for you.” (L. Feuerbach)

29.2 Economy:“Competition is central planning carried out by many independent individuals.” (F. Hayek)

29.3 Sociology, social psychology:“One is not born a person, one becomes a person.” (A. N. Leontyev)

29.4 Political science:“Morality without politics is useless. Politics without morality is inglorious.” (A.P. Sumarokov)

29.5 Jurisprudence:“At the trial, not only what was obtained during the preliminary investigation is examined, but also how it was obtained.” (A.F. Koni)

Solutions to long-answer tasks are not automatically checked.
The next page will ask you to check them yourself.

Complete testing, check answers, see solutions.

With the development of industry and modern technologies throughout the world, the issue of environmental imbalance has become acute. This problem has reached a level where it is almost impossible to solve. Much of what was destroyed, unfortunately, can no longer be restored.

A disturbance in the ecological balance between natural factors and human activities means that the balance between the environment and society is disrupted. This situation could lead to the death of humanity.

The degree of violation may vary. Pollution is the smallest damage that has been done to the environment. In this case, nature can deal with the problem itself. Over time, she will restore balance, provided that humanity stops harming her.

The second degree is a violation of ecological balance. Here the biosphere loses its ability to self-heal. In order for the balance to return to normal, human intervention is necessary.

The last stage is the most dangerous, and is called the limit at which it becomes impossible to restore the pristine ecosystem. This is an environmental disaster, which is caused by man's rash actions and his unacceptable destruction of the surrounding nature. This fact is already taking place in some areas of the globe.

Disturbance of ecological balance - causes and consequences

The causes of ecological imbalance are related to the development of science and technology. Uneconomical waste of natural resources, deforestation, pollution of water bodies - this is what causes an environmental disaster. By harming nature, a person jeopardizes his existence. This gives rise to great troubles for humanity: a demographic crisis, famine, a shortage of natural resources and environmental destruction. Unfounded leads to the extinction of animals and birds. This leads to a change in the ecological balance. If humanity does not restore destroyed plantings and does not protect endangered animals, this will lead to the death of humanity. For now, these problems can be solved.

The violation of the ecological balance in the city is the most widespread. The construction of buildings and the cutting down of parks lead to environmental pollution. A large amount of transport and a lack of green spaces contribute to the accumulation of smog and carbon dioxide. As a result, there is an increase in the number of sick people among the urban population.

Industrial development has led to an increase in harmful emissions into the atmosphere. Not many managers of enterprises and factories care about protecting the environment. In this state of affairs, humanity will face an environmental catastrophe.

Nowadays, environmental protection issues are being urgently raised in many countries. Country leaders and environmental committees are concerned about the changes taking place in nature. Many manufacturers are establishing environmentally friendly production. For example, they began to produce electric cars that are absolutely safe for the environment. A particularly important point is waste recycling. This issue needs immediate resolution. Many countries have seriously taken up the disposal and processing of human waste. Clearing the planet of debris is one way to restore balance between the natural world and society.

Every person is responsible for his actions. By polluting the environment, we primarily harm our own lives. If all people follow certain rules that will contribute to the conservation of nature, then we can hope that environmental disaster will cease to be a threat to humanity.

Lesson objectives:

1. To develop students' understanding of environmental balance.
2. Improve the ability to use previously acquired knowledge in work and draw conclusions based on one’s own observations.
3. Develop students' cognitive activity.
4. Foster a love of nature and respect for the environment.

2. Let us consider, using examples, a violation of ecological balance, the causes of its occurrence and consequences.

Ecological balance between living and non-living nature

Let us determine how living and inanimate nature are interconnected. Slide 5

A forest grew along the banks of one river. The river was full-flowing, the trees grew strong and healthy. Why was this so? (The river gave moisture to the trees, and the trees also gave water to the river)

How did trees provide water to the river? (The forest attracts rain clouds. Streams grow in the shade of the trees)

That is, an exchange took place: the river fed the plants, and the plants fed the river. And then people came and cut down the trees. What will happen to the river? (Without receiving food, the river will become shallow and may dry up completely)

Conclusion: This means that the connection between them will be disrupted or, in other words, the ecological balance will be disrupted.

Look how simple everything is and how complex everything is. It’s simple when we don’t think about our actions, and difficult when we begin to weigh our actions.”

Look what our Bolshoy Irgiz River looks like . Slide 6

A river flows from afar...
How nice it is when the river
Both wide and deep!
Above her are more magnificent clouds,
Fresh breath of the breeze,
The forest above her is slimmer and taller,
And the coastal meadow is greener!

And in order for it to remain as beautiful and full of water, it must be treated with care.

Is ecological balance between living and inanimate nature important? (Children's answers)

3. Conversation “Ecological pyramid” . Slide 7

The same thing happens in food connections between plants and animals, between animals and animals. Let's remember the ecological pyramid.

An owl needs a lot of mice to feed itself. One mouse - many acorns. Who is this owl? (Predator)

This means that there should be fewer predators than herbivores.

And there are fewer herbivorous animals than the plants they feed on. What can happen if at least one link in this chain is broken? (The ecological balance will be disrupted. If you destroy an owl, there will be many mice)

What happens if there are a lot of owls? (They will eat all the mice, and the acorns will all sprout, turn into trees, and there will be little room for them to grow)

Conclusion: If at least one link in this chain is broken, the ecological balance will be disrupted.

4. Now people know many examples of dangerous violations of the ecological balance.

Let's consider whether the balance between herbivores and predators is important

Let's listen to a message about the disruption of the ecological balance between animals. Let's find out how spiders are useful. Appendix 3. Message 1. Slide 8

If there are no spiders, what can happen in nature? (Children's answers)

Unfortunately, children walking through the forest often deliberately break spider webs, and when they see a running spider somewhere on the path, they try to crush it. No need! Spiders are part of a huge and complex animal world, of which we ourselves are a part. Everything in this world deserves respect. And spiders too.

Now let's listen to a message about all known insects. Slide 9

The ladybug is an excellent assistant in the fight for the harvest. She eats aphids, dangerous insects. Just one beetle can eat 4,000 aphids in its life (scientists have calculated). If a person starts catching ladybugs for their beauty - aphids will spread, dangerous insects - harvests will decrease, plants in gardens and parks will begin to die.

- How can a person upset the ecological balance?

I found interesting material in my encyclopedic dictionary... (Student's name). Slide 10

Disturbance of ecological balance between animals

In the area of ​​Uvarovka station, near Moscow, at the beginning of the 20th century. one landowner, in order to increase the number of game in his forests that he wanted to hunt, paid peasants a bonus for the destruction of birds of prey. As a result, the number of hazel grouse, black grouse, and wood grouse has sharply decreased. Predators are natural orderlies. By destroying sick and weak birds, they prevent the spread of various diseases among them, from which many birds die and their numbers become smaller.

Here we see a violation of the ecological balance between birds.

Who upset this balance? What did this lead to? (Children's answers)

Who else has found material about the disruption of ecological balance between animals? (Children's answers)

1) One day, fishermen noticed that their catch began to include many sick fish. The reason turned out to be simple: all the crayfish were caught in the river. But crayfish destroy the remains of dead animals and serve as orderlies. And when the crayfish were gone, healthy fish became infected from the dead fish... (Appendix 2. Fig. 2.)

Who upset the balance in the river? What could this lead to?

2) You need to be very careful with the birds, lizards, and toads living in the meadow. These animals are not only interesting, but also maintain the ecological balance of the meadow. If they are gone, herbivorous insects will begin to multiply unhindered and destroy many plants.. (Appendix 2. Fig. 3.)

What animals maintain balance in the meadow?

Work according to the textbook.

Read on page 142 in your textbook under number 4. Slide 11

What incident did you read about in Australia?

What would environmental scientists say about what happened in Australia? (In Australia, the ecological balance between predators and herbivores was disrupted.)

Is ecological balance between animals important? (Children's answers)

PHYSMINUTE

In the morning the butterfly woke up
She stretched and smiled.
Once she washed herself with dew,
Two - she spun gracefully,
Three - bent down and sat down,
At four - it flew away.

5. Continue studying the topic of the lesson.

1. Consider the disturbance of ecological balance between plants

1) A student’s story about the imbalance between plants. Slide 12. A story about a forester who wanted to restore order in the forest. (Appendix 3. Message 2)

Here we see how a person upsets this balance.

Deforestation can lead to environmental disaster . Slide 13

2) Now let’s listen to a story about violations of the ecological connection between mushrooms and trees. Slide 14

Does the forest need mushrooms (Appendix 3. Message 3)

Does the forest need mushrooms? How did mushrooms help the trees?

Is ecological balance important? (Children's answers)

2. Consider the balance between animals and plants.

1) On this issue we will listen to... (name of student) . Slide 15

A story about a jay and a nutcracker. (Appendix 3. Message 4)

2) Who will give their examples of imbalance between animals and plants? (Children's answers)

Conclusion: Animals, fungi, microorganisms are closely related to each other, they live together, as if together. An imbalance between them can lead to an environmental problem.

6. Based on your knowledge and observations, give examples of human violations of ecological balance. (Children's answers) . Slide 16

Student messages:

1) Why does the water in the lake become cloudy? (Appendix 3. Message 5) Slide 17

2) A story about mosquitoes and cats. (Appendix 3. Message 6) Slide 18

PHYSMINUTE. Slide 19

We planted a birch tree
We poured water on her
And the birch tree grew up,
Raised branches to the sun,
And then she tilted them
And she thanked the guys.

Consolidation

I propose to explain the following environmental situations:

1) Some industrial enterprises discharge waste untreated water into reservoirs. How will this affect the fish wealth of the reservoir? And on a person? Slide 20

2) Why is there more dust and harder to breathe in areas of new buildings than in old areas with squares and parks? Slide 21

3) Why did the number of sick deer increase many times after the destruction of wolves in Taimyr? Slide 22

What conclusion do you draw from all that has been said? Is it possible to disturb the ecological balance?

(You cannot disturb the ecological balance; this leads to environmental problems.)

VI. Summing up the lesson. Grading

Why is ecological balance important?

What to do if the ecological balance is already disrupted? (Reading an excerpt from the textbook p. 142)

Conclusions. Slide 23

Ecological balance in the world around us is very important, because in nature everything is interconnected. Neither plants, nor animals, nor humans can live on their own.

People should know very well how everything is connected in nature, how one depends on the other. Then they will be able to make fairly accurate environmental forecasts and act in such a way as not to upset the balance in nature.

I would like to end our lesson with Boris Zakhoder’s poem “About Everyone in the World.” (Read by a prepared student). Slide 24

Everyone, everything in the world - everyone in the world is needed!
And midges are no less needed than elephants...
You can't do without absurd monsters,
And even without evil and ferocious predators!
We need everything in the world! Need everything
Who makes honey and who makes poison.

Things are bad for the cat and the mouse
A mouse without a cat can do no better.
Yes, if we are not very friendly with someone
We still really need each other.
And if anyone seems superfluous to us,
This, of course, will turn out to be a mistake.

If you take something from the Earth, give it back to it. Plant a tree, clean the spring, feed the birds, only then the Earth will remain the same as in your “Favorite Corners of Nature” drawings.

Let us try to live in such a way that the earth around us remains generous and beautiful, so that clean streams gurgle on it, gardens bloom, and birds sing.

Homework

1. Read the textbook material on pages 141, 142.
2. Do your homework in a printed notebook.

Items