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Topic: Religions of India and China. Confucianism. Taoism. Shintoism. 9th grade

Tasks:

➢promote students' understanding of various forms and

types of religions;

➢help students see the differences in approaches to classifications of religion;

➢help students understand the features of some ethno-state

religions, the historical conditionality of the connection between religion and national cultures.

1. Classification of religions.

2. Features of some ethno-state religions:

Zoroastrianism;

Judaism;

Jainism;

Taoism;

Confucianism;

Shintoism;

Sikhism.

1. Classification of religions.

Let's turn to the textbook by P.F. Dick "Fundamentals of Religious Studies", in which

The classification has its reasons:

a) so, G.V.F. Hegel identified the religion of nature (confessions of India, China, Persia, Syria, Egypt);

as well as the religion of spiritual individuality (confessions of India, Greece, Rome) and absolute

religion - Christianity.

b) Auguste Comte identified three stages in religions:

Fetishism,

Polytheism,

Monotheism.

c) D. Lubbock (1868) identified seven stages of religion:

Atheism,

Fetishism,

Totemism,

Shamanism,

-idolatry,

-gods - supernatural creators,

-gods - beneficent beings;

d) K. Thiele (1876) divided religions into two types: natural (natural) and ethical.

e) M. Muller (1878) distinguished the religions of the Aryan, Semitic and Turanian peoples.

f) Marxist theory distinguished the religions of pre-class and class societies, and the religions of class

societies were divided into national (national-state, people's-state) and

world (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam).

Conclusion: Thus, as we see, there are a lot of forms and types of religions, as well as classifications

sufficient, but no classification is perfect.

2.Features of some ethno-state religions.

In lecture No. 3 we looked at pre-state forms of religion: fetishism, totemism, magic,

animism. Now it should be noted that religion in a particular country is so closely intertwined with

national living conditions, national characteristics, that most likely these religions should

call them not ethnic, but ethno-state.

Let's look at some of them.

main periods, according to cultural experts,

- vedic period

- brahmanical period

- Hindu period.

The Vedic period got its name from ancient religious texts- Ved (from the word “to know,

hymns, texts, which are combined into four historical books. The oldest of Vedic books -

in historical sequence follows the book of worship Yajurveda, and completes the main Vedic

books collection of chants - Atharva Veda.

The Vedic period of Hinduism, which dates back to the second millennium BC, is marked by

water Sometimes he was called the supreme god of the Vedic period. Also known are Dyaus, Surya, Savitri,

Pushan, Mithra, Vishnu and even a deity female -Ushas - goddess of the dawn, as well as other gods:

Ashwins, Aditi, Agni, Soma and many others. In the hymn about the creation of the world (in the Rig Veda) it is sung:

Not there was then no existence, and there was no existence.

There was then neither the space of air nor the sky above it...

There was neither death nor immortality then,

There was no sign of day or night.

Something alone was breathing, without vibrating the air, according to its own law,

And there was nothing else but him.

During the Brahmanical period, which dates back to the beginning of the first millennium BC, when as a result

socio-economic transformations in India with the arrival of the Aryan tribes, a caste arose

system, the dominant position in the social structure of Indian society began to be occupied by brahmins,

concentrated in their hands the state and religious authority. Later the Brahmins were

period became expensive and passed into private hands. The people remained aloof from the main religious

holidays and was content with family rituals and traditions. During this period in Brahmanical literature

the idea of transmigration of souls and rebirth (karma) spreads; a little later six

classical religious and philosophical orthodox systems: Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, yoga, Nyaya,

Vaisesika.

The 21st century continues to be the state religion, and Buddhism, which has become a world religion (about

which will be discussed in subsequent lectures).

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e.the era of Hinduism began, when the Brahmins were forced

give up their positions, and religious cults became increasingly accessible and democratic for

attracting the masses. Majestic temples began to be created, mass

religious holidays and processions. It was then that Krishna and his incarnation Rama became the main god.

Numerous branches of Hinduism and sects emerged. Today Hinduism continues to exist. He

complex, colorful, adapted to a country of many millions, tolerant and skillfully spreading its influence

to the whole world: the Hare Krishna movement, for example, officially exists in our republic (in Kazakhstan

small Hare Krishna communities have existed for about 10 years. The first emissaries of the Krishna Consciousness Society

appeared in Almaty in 1983. In 1991 The Almaty Society for Krishna Consciousness was registered. IN

1999 In Kazakhstan, there were 13 spiritual centers of the Krishna Consciousness Society, which had in their

with more than 500 members. The largest community is located in Almaty, its population is more than 200

Human).

Jainism.

suggest that Jainism arose somewhat earlier

The founder is Jinnah (i.e. “victor”), a prophet named Mahavir Vardhaman. In the book by Mirkina Z.,

Pomerants G. “Great Religions of the World” (- M., 1995.P.199.) states that Mahavira Vardhamana was

elder contemporary of Buddha. Mahavira's name literally means "great hero." According to legend, he

too, like Buddha, he was a prince, but in his desire to comprehend the world he became an ascetic. The authors write that “

his followers still exist in India; they are called Jains, and their teaching is Jainism. IN

S.A. Tokarev in the book “Religion in the history of the peoples of the world” (- M., 1986.P.289.) argued that in India “

Jains, according to the latest data, are about 3 million.”

him. The Jains did not recognize the caste system; they believed that each person himself seeks his own path to

salvation, promoted strict asceticism, in which some of the particularly consistent Jains

refuses to wear clothes at all. They are called digambaras - “clothed with light”. Some Jains

demand the preservation of chastity, preach celibacy and ahimsa (non-killing): “you cannot even kill

insect, so Jains must drink water through a strainer so as not to accidentally swallow a living one

peace. - M., 1986.P.289). The Jains worship their twenty-four prophets.

Popular encyclopedia “Countries and Peoples” (S.-Pb.1997.P.247.) calls Sikhism the main

religion of India along with Hinduism, Islam and Christianity. Sikhism emerged at the end of the twentieth century - beginning of XY1

centuries as a special movement in Hinduism, which preached the equality of all people, the rejection of the caste system,

the desire to unite all religions into one. The founder is considered to be Nanak, who united around

the peoples themselves to fight against the Muslims, and later the fight continued against the conquerors - English.

Main Book of Sikhs- "Adigranth". “Their communities are very united, the custom is observed

obligatory payment of a certain percentage of income to the community to help fellow believers. Sikhs

stricter than Hindus, they still adhere to national traditions in clothing, do not cut their hair and

beards, they must wear a special iron bracelet, indicating membership in a sect.”

(S.A. Tokarev. Religion in the history of the peoples of the world. - M., 1986.P.295.). Monotheism is also noted

Sikhism and its denial of the clergy.

Taoism.

In G.H. Greel's book What is Taoism?, published in 1970, it is written: “If anyone - or believes

what am I going to give an answer to the question posed in the title of this work, then let me immediately

dissuade him. I will not be so stupid as to try to give a single independent definition of

what Taoism is. In fact, the more one studies Taoism, the clearer it becomes that it does not mean

school, but a whole web of doctrines."

Taoism as religious- philosophical movement arose at the turn of U1-in centuries BC Its founder

- senior contemporary of Confucius- Lao-Tzu, nicknamed the old teacher. Here's what he writes about his appearance

brought to light by Yu.Ya. Bondarenko in the book “Man. Fate. Universe. Through the eyes of the ancient sages" ( -

M., 1994.P.145.): “According to legend, Lao, as the embodiment of Tao, like Buddha, from time immemorial

appeared in the world in one form or another, until one day he found himself in the womb of the Divine Virgin

Yongnyu. It happened in the most unexpected way. When on a wonderful night a beautiful maiden, inhaling

midnight aromas, leaned against a plum, a luminous ball descended from heaven into her half-open mouth -

a barely noticeable drop of the sun, like a shooting star. Yunnu swallowed the ball. After which she conceived

a child she carried in her womb for 81 years. It is quite clear that Lao was not born a foolish baby, but

face, white hair and large ears, which were considered in China a sign of a special intelligence.”

Main book attributed to Lao - Tzu, and which sets out the essence of his teachings, is called

"Tao - de jing."

What is the “Tao” that gave the current its name? According to Taoists (information from the book

not created by anyone, it is “the root itself,” embracing and containing all that exists. Taoists

call him “highest Teacher”, “heavenly ancestor”, “mother of the world”, “creator of things”.

Basic ideas of Taoism:

➢the idea of a single origin of the world - Tao;

➢the idea of understanding the world as a single whole in which everything exists in interconnection;

➢the idea of transforming the body and acquiring special properties through meditation;

➢the idea of the path to immortality through the improvement of spirit and body;

➢the idea of “great peace of being” through self-elimination and non-action, when “the knower does not speak, but the speaker

does not know".

Question: why do you think religiously- philosophical doctrine V ancient China arose in such

ethical form? It's difficult to answer!

Homework: identify the prerequisites for the emergence of Taoism and Confucianism in China.

Confucianism.

arose in China also in the 1st century BC.

Founder - Kun - Ugh -Tzu, who in Europe was called Confucius, and according to-Russians-Confucius. In the book

“Moral Portraits of the Prophets” (Compiled by - Arzyamova G.V. - M., 1993.P.101) gives a legend about

birth of Confucius: “The founder of Chinese ritual, Chinese tradition, Teacher Kun surprised

everyone from birth. And his birth was unusual. The son of an impoverished nobleman, a descendant of one of

of royal branches, the son of an old soldier. Shuliang He was 70 years old when he married a girl for the third time

(Zheng - Tsai was not sixteen) from a simple family. So what to do? Beloved wife gave He eight

daughters, second - son - a freak, but only a full-fledged man - a descendant could offer sacrificial meat

and wine to the souls of the departed, otherwise the entire Shuliang He family will be in kingdom of the dead evil spirits, forever

tormented by hunger and thirst. The girl’s father was already preparing his daughter to become a shaman, a “girl of spirits” - mediator

between the living and the dead at the ancestral temple of the ancestors... And here is the request of the old soldier (perhaps

fellow soldier) changed everything. The youngest daughter of a commoner accepted the turn of fate. And on the day

autumn equinox - September 22, 551 BC gave birth to an amazing boy, later a sage

In the same source, on page 102, a portrait of Confucius is given: “... a strong and strong child grew

faster than his peers and in his mature years was distinguished by his unusually tall stature and powerful physique.

His face was unusual and with age surprised, to put it mildly, with its ugliness: a massive forehead,

very long ears, upturned upper lip, - under which two unnaturally large

front teeth, thick eyebrows and beard, fleshy nose with wide nostrils, bulging and whitish eyes.

With such an appearance, he would be considered a freak, if not for his natural grace and good manners.”

IN summary The teachings of Confucius are as follows:

-created his own school;

-developed socially-ethical theory of relationships in the society of ancient China;

-called for the education of a “noble man” brought up on virtues;

-considered it important in Chinese society to observe hierarchy and subordination;

-widely promoted the ideas of education in collectivist conditions

the existence of Chinese society;

-considered the supreme power - Sky;

-was a low official in the state, a wanderer, a teacher;

-His name is associated with a reverent attitude towards the traditions of the country and family.

These ideas were more relevant than ever in an era of great social and political upheaval,

which China experienced, thrown into internecine conflicts in which the tribal aristocracy perished,

the ancient foundations of the family and society collapsed, and the corruption and greed of officials led to suffering

ordinary people. Criticizing his contemporary society, Confucius proclaimed his ideal of perfect

person (jun - zi), who was supposed to have a sense of duty (certain moral

obligations that a perfect man imposes on himself) and humanity, which

implies in a person modesty, restraint, dignity, selflessness, love for people,

empathy, respect and other qualities

Confucius formulated his social ideal, which can be expressed in his wish:

"Let father be son, son - father, sir - sovereign, official - official." The main task

Confucianism – establishing order in society, focusing on respect for the traditions of the old and education

a virtuous person capable of serving people and the fatherland. When did Confucianism become

official religion of China, much of what was proposed Conf ounces, convert disappeared in external odds mu,

manifested in false ritual x and ceremonies.

Shintoism.

IN popular uh encyclopedia « Countries And peoples » ( -WITH.-Pb.1997. P.295.) O main R religions

Japan named Buddhism and Shintoism.

Shintoism – trad itional own religion Japanese ntsev. Naz tion happened was going on from words "put b god V".

Formed religion V U1 - U11 centuries IN Shintoism e many in god V, which s inherited I ponia with

times existence genus new building. Supreme deity I'm in lies with solar goddess Amateras y, kro meh

she is revered by Susa - But- in (god b Uri) and Inari - ( « rice second person"). With time influence of Buddhism

intensified us only, What happened was going on merger I Japanese cam And (gods) With buddi yskimi. In second floors otherwise

Х1Х century si ntoism strengthens its position in Japan, he deified by the emperor skuyu vl is. Shintoism

divided on temple And sectarian th Shintoism. WITH ugh si Ntoism – V preached ai high

morality and d ear cleanliness.

Judaism.

beliefs appeared on R shelter second th And first thousand years th before AD Role And udaism great: He has entered

composite part V worlds s religion christia society And Islam. Already in p ervom millennium And udaism began

transform V monotheist ical religion With cult single god Yahweh. At the beginning And udaism Not

spread Further Pa ladders, terr history, on which He arose, however Later afterbirth teli

Judaism settled By everything to the world. Judaism - religion euro Yeisk people Yes, V which th it was said about

exceptional m Essian purpose of the Jews.

Basic ideas of Judaism A:

-God's chosenness Yeisk people,

-faith in one and everything burning god

-national self-isolation ation of the Jewish people yes, which one went to

preservation of ethnicity.

Sacred book Judaism called Tanakh (This euro Yeiskoe Name Dilapidated covenant). IN her entered Torah

(Pentateuch ), Nebiim ( "Prophet oki") And Xs we'll kill ( "scriptures") Except Togo V Dilapidated th behind vet louse whether : book yoke

Judges four e book igi kingdoms, two books Chronicle, and etc. B section "p" Isania" in walked philosophical treatise

Ecclesiastes, collections to prayer songs y and lyric poem "Song of Songs" ».

To arose performance O parts Dilapidated covenant - Book Ecclesiastes(Ecclesiastes) -

I suggest you listen there is an excerpt from ancient th work, about related to 1 thousand BC:

“... 2. Vanity of vanities, said l Ecclesiastes, vanity of vanities, - all with ueta !

3. What benefits does a person get from all the please him, who and he works under

the sun?

4. The birth passes, and the birth continues goes away, but the earth remains lasts forever...

9.What has been is what will be; and h it was done, then it would be done will be done, and there is nothing

new under the sun.

10. I saw all the cases, ka which are made under the sun, and that's it -bustle And

languor of spirit!

Zoroastrianism - the religion of the ancient Iranians - developed away from the main centers of Middle Eastern civilization and was noticeably different in character from the religious systems of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Genetically, Zoroastrianism goes back to the ancient beliefs of the Indo-European peoples - the very ones whose resettlement from their hypothetical ancestral home (the Black Sea and Caspian regions) to the west, south and east at the turn of the 3rd-2nd and the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. e. gave impetus to the emergence of a number of ancient civilizations (ancient Greek, Iranian, Indian) and had a significant impact on the development of other centers of world culture, including China.

For many centuries after settlement in each of the new regions mastered by the Indo-Europeans, the development of religions proceeded, albeit on the basis of common ancient ideas, but in its own way. One of the variants of this development (relatively late and therefore already quite developed) was Zoroastrianism, the foundations of which are fixed in the oldest holy book of the Zoroastrians Avesta.

Zoroastrianism of the Avesta- This is the teaching of the prophet Zarathushtra (Zoroaster). Zoroaster lived and preached relatively late, in the 7th-6th centuries BC., that is, he was practically a contemporary of Lao Tzu, Buddha and Confucius. There is no doubt that Zoroastrianism belongs to the already fairly developed religious systems. Ethics occupies a central place in the system, and the principles based on it are the main criteria.

The essence of the teaching comes down to the fact that everything that exists is divided into two polar opposite camps - the world of good and the world of evil, the forces of light and the kingdom of darkness (originally exist). There is a continuous struggle between the light and dark principles. At the end of life the struggle will end. The earth will burn in fire.

The dualistic idea of irreconcilability and the constant struggle between light and darkness, good and evil, which became the focus of attention in Zoroastrianism, had a huge social and ethical orientation. Zoroaster, as it were, addressed a person with a call to become better, purer, to devote all his efforts and thoughts to the fight against the forces of darkness and evil. People were called upon to be benevolent, moderate in thoughts and passions, ready to live in peace and friendship with everyone, and to help their neighbors. Honesty and loyalty were praised, theft, slander, and crimes were condemned. Moreover, perhaps the main idea of the ethical doctrine of Zoroastrianism was the thesis that evil and suffering depend on people themselves, who can and should be active creators of their own happiness. And to fight evil, a person must first of all cleanse himself, and not so much even in spirit and thoughts, but in body.

Zoroastrianism attached ritual significance to physical purity. It was necessary to beware of all uncleanness, especially corpses. Sick women, women who had just given birth, and women during certain periods of their life cycle were also considered unclean. Everyone, they had to go through special rite cleansing.

Fire played an important role in the purification process, to which Zoroastrianism attached paramount importance, distinguishing it from the rest of the elements. Rituals in honor of Agura Mazda were performed not in temples, but in open places, with singing, wine and always fire (fire worshipers). Not only fire and other elements were revered, but also some animals - bull, horse, dog.

Ritualism resembles the Pharisaic desire to do everything according to the letter of the law. All representatives of the Persian Empire were Zoroastrians.

Buddhism originated in VI century BC in North India. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama (approximately 583-483 BC), the son of the ruler of the Shakya clan from Kapilavasta (region of Southern Nepal). Leaving home, he begins a strict ascetic life and finally reaches awakening (bodhi), i.e. comprehends the right one life path, which rejects extremes. According to tradition, he was subsequently named Buddha (literally: the Awakened One), (in other sources he is called the Enlightened One).

The teaching is centered on four truths. According to them, human existence is inextricably linked with suffering. Birth, illness, death, meeting the unpleasant and parting with the pleasant, the inability to achieve what you want - all this leads to suffering (1 truth). The cause of suffering is thirst (the desire for existence), leading through joys and passions to rebirth, rebirth (2nd truth). Eliminating the causes of suffering lies in eliminating this thirst (truth 3). The path leading to the elimination of suffering and the achievement of nirvana - the eightfold path - is as follows: righteous faith, righteous decision, righteous word, righteous deed, righteous life, righteous aspiration, righteous remembrance, righteous self-absorption (4th truth).

The goal of Buddhism is Nirvana, which means “fading” in translation, i.e. cessation of being, but suicide is strictly prohibited. It is almost impossible to define this concept for the simple reason that the Buddha himself did not formulate it clearly and, in all likelihood, did not himself know the definition of this state. The Greatest Good is getting rid of karma and reincarnations. This includes the destruction of individuality. Nirvana seems to imply the destruction of the soul. Particular emphasis was placed on practical meditation, so the Buddha did not have a prayer, but only intense training of his neuropsychic, physiological ecstasy.

Buddha never says anything about God. His teaching is atheistic in nature.

Confucianism is a Chinese belief (it cannot be called a religion, since there is nothing from God in it) named after its founder, Confucius (VI-V centuries BC). Confucius was born and lived in an era of great social and political upheaval, when China was in a state of internal crisis. Having criticized his own century and highly valued the past centuries, Confucius, on the basis of this opposition, created his ideal of the perfect man, Junzi.

Confucius set out to study all the religious sacred books that were in China at that time. Based on this, he developed his teaching. He did not write, but transmitted his teachings orally. Two areas are important in his teaching.

1. There are two principles in the world - heaven and earth. Heaven is the highest principle, earth is the lowest. The combination of these two principles resulted in everything that we see, including man. But not a word is said about God, and in general he has no teaching about God. To the question of what will happen after death: Confucius answered that he does not know what life is, then how can he know what will happen after death.

2. The veneration of ancestors and the souls of the departed is of great religious importance in Confucianism. But nothing is said about the soul, about its state after death. This means that nothing was said about this in the ancients. Chinese books, which were known in China at that time. The cult of veneration had a more socio-political meaning than a religious one. Confucius saw that thanks to this it was possible to preserve the unity of the nation and preserve the strength of the state.

The very essence of Confucianism, the very core, is the preservation of customs. This is the main tenet of Confucianism. This dogma is expressed in three principles:

ZHEN – humanity, humanity those. the principle of relationships between people. And briefly he puts it this way: “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself.” On the contrary, do only pleasant things. However, for a truly perfect person (Junzi), humanity alone was not enough. He must have another important quality - sense of duty(AND). The sense of duty is determined, as a rule, by knowledge and higher principles, but not by calculation.

LI – etiquette. It's a whole ceremony. This is the most precious thing of Confucianism. Confucius was confident that thanks to this principle it was possible to cultivate respect for each other and eradicate anger. But despite this, he directly teaches about mortal (blood) revenge.

SNF – it is a sacred veneration of the old and ancestors(dead and alive). Without this, there can be no family unity, national unity, there can be no transmission of traditions, etc.

Following all these principles was the duty of the noble Junzi, which in collection of sayings of Confucius Lun Yu is defined as a person who is honest and sincere, straightforward and fearless, all-seeing and understanding, attentive in speech, careful in deeds. In doubt he must cope, in anger he must consider his actions, in a profitable enterprise he must take care of honesty; in youth he must avoid lust, in maturity - quarrels, in old age - miserliness. The true Junzi is indifferent to food, wealth, life's comforts and material gain. He devotes himself entirely to serving high ideals, serving people and the search for truth.

In moral terms, there was not a word about love for enemies. Confucianism is the mean in everything, no extremes in anything, the golden mean in everything.

Confucianism cannot be called a religion. His goal is purely materialistic. It knows nothing but earthly things and does not want to know.

ZOROAASTRIANISM, HINDUISM, CONFUCIANITY AND TAOISM, RELIGIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, JUDAISM

Parameter name	Meaning
Article topic:	ZOROAASTRIANISM, HINDUISM, CONFUCIANITY AND TAOISM, RELIGIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, JUDAISM
Rubric (thematic category)	Culture

Zoroastrianism markedly different in character from the religious systems of Mesopotamia and Egypt. He belongs to a later type prophetic religions. Its founder was the Iranian prophet Zoroaster (Zarathushtra), who lived in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e., i.e. at the same time as Buddha Shakyamuni and only 100 years earlier than Lao Tzu and Confucius. Zoroaster was a prophet-teacher, like the Hebrew Moses. The foundations of Zoroastrianism are recorded in the most ancient sacred book of Zoroastrians - Avesta.

In the texts of the times of the Achaemenid rulers Darius, Cyrus, Xerxes, one can find traces of ᴇᴦο ideas, but there is no mention of him himself. There is very little information about him. The Avesta texts that science has today date back to a much later time. According to the teachings of Zoroaster, the world of good, light and justice, which Ahura-Mazda personifies (Greek Ormuzd), is opposed to the world of evil and darkness, ᴇᴦο personified by Angra Mainyu (Ariman). Between these two principles there is a struggle for life and death. Ahura Mazda is helped in this struggle by the spirits of purity and goodness, Angra Mainyu - by the forces of evil and destruction.

Zoroastrianism already belongs to the number of developed religions; it philosophically comprehends the world on the basis of the dualistic idea of irreconcilability and the constant struggle of light and darkness, good and evil. Here the transition from magical religions to ethical ones takes place. A person must be on the side of good, become better, spare no effort to fight evil and the forces of darkness, all evil spirits. He must be benevolent, moderate in thoughts and passions, and help his neighbor. Man is the creator of his own happiness; fate depends on him. To fight evil, a person must first of all cleanse himself, and not only in spirit and thought, but also in body. Zoroastrianism attached ritual significance to physical purity. The corpses of the dead are a symbol of impurity; they should not come into contact with pure elements (earth, water, fire). Hence ~ a special ritual of Burial˸ into open towers, special servants carried the bodies of the dead, where they were pecked by predatory vultures, and the bones were thrown to the bottom of a well dug in the tower, lined with stone. Sick people, women after childbirth and during menstruation were considered unclean. They had to undergo a special purification rite. Fire played the main role in purification rites. Rituals in honor of Ahura Mazda were performed not in temples, but in open places, with singing, wine and always fire. Hence another name for supporters of Zoroastrianism - fire worshipers. Along with fire, other elements and some animals were revered - bull, horse, dog and vulture.

Zoroastrianism introduced into mythology the idea of the existence, in addition to Earth and Heaven, of a special luminous sphere and paradise. The first man named Yima Ahura-Mazda was forced to be expelled from paradise and deprived of immortality because he showed disobedience and began to eat the meat of sacred bulls. This is how the struggle between good and evil began after the paradise idyll. The concept of sin, the fall of man and punishment is encountered almost for the first time in Zoroastrianism. The posthumous fate of a person depends on the strength of faith and activity in the fight against evil - or he deserves heavenly bliss, or he finds himself among the spirits of darkness and evil spirits. A person’s fate turns out to depend on his beliefs and behavior. And one more innovation - the teaching about the end of the world, “ the Last Judgment” and the coming of the messiah, in which Zoroaster will be incarnated, to save humanity and contribute to the final victory of Ahura Mazda over the forces of evil. There is no doubt that these ideas influenced Christianity.

ZOROAASTRIANISM, HINDUISM, CONFUCIANITY AND TAOISM, RELIGIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, JUDAISM - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "ZOROAASTRIANISM, HINDUISM, CONFUCIANITY AND TAOISM, RELIGIONS OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS, JUDAISM" 2015, 2017-2018.

In the texts of the times of the Achaemenid rulers Darius, Cyrus, Xerxes, one can find traces of his ideas, but there is no mention of him. There is very little information about him. The Avesta texts that science has today date back to a much later time. According to the teachings of Zoroaster, the world of good, light and justice, which is personified by Ahura Mazda (Greek Ormuzd), is opposed to the world of evil and darkness, personified by Angra Mainyu (Ariman). Between these two principles there is a struggle for life and death. Ahura Mazda is helped in this struggle by the spirits of purity and goodness, Angra Mainyu - by the forces of evil and destruction.

Zoroastrianism already belongs to the number of developed religions; it philosophically comprehends the world on the basis of the dualistic idea of irreconcilability and the constant struggle of light and darkness, good and evil. Here the transition from magical religions to ethical ones takes place. A person must be on the side of good, become better, spare no effort to fight evil and the forces of darkness, all evil spirits. He must be benevolent, moderate in thoughts and passions, and help his neighbor. Man is the creator of his own happiness, his fate depends on him. To fight evil, a person must first of all cleanse himself, and not only in spirit and thought, but also in body. Zoroastrianism attached ritual significance to physical purity. The corpses of the dead are a symbol of impurity; they should not come into contact with pure elements (earth, water, fire). Hence the special ritual of Burial: special servants carried the bodies of the dead into open towers, where they were pecked by predatory vultures, and the bones were thrown to the bottom of a well dug in the tower, lined with stone. Sick people, women after childbirth and during menstruation were considered unclean. They had to undergo a special purification rite. Fire played the main role in purification rites. Rituals in honor of Ahura Mazda were performed not in temples, but in open places, with singing, wine and always fire. Hence another name for supporters of Zoroastrianism - fire worshipers. Along with fire, other elements and some animals were revered - bull, horse, dog and vulture.

Zoroastrianism introduced into mythology the idea of the existence, in addition to Earth and Heaven, of a special luminous sphere and paradise. The first man named Yima Ahura-Mazda was forced to be expelled from paradise and deprived of immortality because he showed disobedience and began to eat the meat of sacred bulls. This is how the struggle between good and evil began after the paradise idyll. The concept of sin, the fall of man and punishment is encountered almost for the first time in Zoroastrianism. The posthumous fate of a person depends on the strength of his faith and activity in the fight against evil - either he deserves heavenly bliss, or he finds himself among the spirits of darkness and evil spirits. A person's fate turns out to be dependent on his beliefs and behavior. And one more innovation is the teaching about the end of the world, the “Last Judgment” and the coming of the Messiah, in which Zoroaster will be incarnated to save humanity and contribute to the final victory of Ahura Mazda over the forces of evil. There is no doubt that these ideas influenced Christianity.

By the name of the god of light Ahura Mazda, this teaching is also called Mazdaism, and by the place of its origin - Parsism. In Persia itself or present-day Iran, this ancient Iranian religion completely disappeared, supplanted by Islam. Expelled from their country, the Parsis moved to India and preserved the ancient teaching there as a “living” religion.

In late Zoroastrianism, at the turn of our era, the cult of the god of light Mithra, who was considered the assistant of Ahura Mazda, came to the fore. In the form of Mithraism, Zoroastrianism spread throughout the Greco-Roman ancient world. It was brought by Roman legionaries from the eastern campaigns of the 1st century. n. e. Mithra began to be identified with the savior who was mentioned in Zoroastrian prophecies. Every year on December 25th his birthday was celebrated (this day also became the day of the Nativity of Christ). Those who believed in Mithra used to take communion with bread and wine, symbolizing his body and blood. The name Mithra itself means loyalty, i.e. it is associated with moral ideas. In the 2nd-3rd centuries, the cult of Mithra was a dangerous rival for Christianity. His influence was felt in different countries not only in ancient times, but also in the Middle Ages.

Zoroastrianism, as a prophetic religion, sees the meaning of the world not in its existence, but in the fulfillment of the goal established by God at the end of days. This is an eschatologically oriented religion, close in essence to other prophetic religions that have become world religions - Christianity and Islam. The world as it is is not yet a world in which its meaning is realized, the world is only on the way to its embodiment. Man is called to fulfill the law and thereby the will of the gods, but he is also called by God himself to take part in this cosmic struggle and make his choice between the forces of light and darkness, good and evil spirits.

There are three sociologically significant points worth noting in Zoroastrianism. Firstly, it was a religion that carried a protest against the existing social state and defended a social ideal. The wisdom of power is not in violence, robbery and subjugation, oppression of the lower strata ( cardinal virtue a righteous person, according to the Avesta, is to plow the land and grow plants), and in the right, in a fair manner public life. Secondly, the communities that formed around the prophet were different and followed different motives. The elite was inspired by the teaching itself, by spiritual problems; these people created the early community. The masses were guided by more utilitarian motives; they were attracted by the hope of retribution. The religious level of the first communities was thus different, they pursued different goals. And finally, this prophetic religion, which turned to the personal decision and choice of its followers, after Zoroaster again returned to the type of priestly religion, with frozen prescriptions and magical rituals. If for Zoroaster fire was a sublime symbol, then after him it again turned into an ancient fire cult, and today this prevents the Parsis in India from burning the dead, like the Hindus, because they are afraid of losing their purity.

In general, Zoroastrianism differs significantly from other religions of ancient civilizations and belongs to a higher type of religious development. Distinctive features This religion is its ethical character and the pronounced dualism of the light and dark principles, a phenomenon unusual for other religions, which many researchers associate with the centuries-old conflict and enmity between settled agricultural tribes and nomadic pastoralists.

Hinduism- a religion of tranquility in the one, comprehension of the fact that the multiplicity of the world is illusory. The basis of this religion is the idea that the world is not a random, chaotic combination of things and phenomena, but an ordered whole. The universal and eternal order that preserves and holds the universe as a single whole is called dharma(from Sanskrit “to hold”). Dharma is not a symbol of the lawgiver god, for it is found in the things and phenomena themselves. It embodies a certain impersonal pattern of the Universe as a single whole and only then acts as a law that predetermines the fate of the individual. Thanks to this, the place of each particle in its relation to the whole is established.

From the universal universal dharma is derived the dharma of each individual being and the class to which he belongs. This is the totality of the religious and social duties of each class. If a person's action is in accordance with the dharma, which embodies justice, it is good and leads to order; if not, if the action is contrary to order, it is bad and leads to suffering.

The world is a combination of joy and suffering. People can achieve happiness, albeit temporary, and receive permitted 1Sensual pleasures (kama) and benefits (artha), if they act in accordance with dharma. But those who have reached spiritual maturity do not strive for pleasures and material benefits, but they are looking eternal life, absolute reality, hidden from the eyes of an ordinary mortal by the veil of illusions. Not military leaders, rulers and rich people, but saints, ascetics, hermits are revered by Hindus as truly great people. The meaning of existence is to understand that the plurality of the world is a deception, for there is one Life, one Essence, one Purpose. In the comprehension of this unity, Hindus see the greatest good, salvation, liberation and the highest purpose: to know the Universe in oneself and oneself in everything, to find love, which makes it possible to live a limitless life in this world. The totality of means by which one can comprehend reality and achieve liberation is called yoga.

To be liberated means to recognize that everything comes from the unifying creation of the primordial spirit, and to merge with it. The realization of this unity is achieved in a state of trance, ecstasy, when a person rises from the mortal level and merges with the ocean of pure being, consciousness and joy (sat, chit, ananda).

The transformation of human consciousness into divine consciousness is impossible in one life. An individual in the cycle of existence goes through a series of repeated births and deaths (the law of karma). Each group of people is prescribed a certain norm of behavior that corresponds to a specific stage of the path and following which makes it possible to move to a higher stage.

Since every action is the result of intention and desire, the soul of an individual will be born, incarnate in the world until it is freed from all elements of desire. This is the doctrine of eternal return”: birth and death mean only the creation and disappearance of the body, new births are the journey of the soul, the cycle of life (samsara).

Truth is available at different levels human consciousness to varying degrees. The sage has access to the understanding of pure existence (edvaiga); at a simpler level of consciousness, the absolute can act as personal god, perfection is reduced to goodness, liberation is understood as life in paradise, and wisdom is replaced by love (bhakti) for an individual, “one’s own” god, whom the believer chooses from the pantheon of gods, following his inclinations and sympathies. If this level is not available to a person, then he simply must follow certain moral and ritual instructions and strictly observe them. In this case, the individual god is replaced by his image in the temple, contemplation and concentration - by ritual, prayer, pronouncing sacred formulas, love - by correct behavior. The peculiarity of Hinduism is that, as we see, it allows different points of view and positions: for those who are already close to the goal, and for those who have not yet found the path - darshans(from Sanskrit “to see”). And these differences do not violate the unity of the doctrine.

Hinduism means more than just the name of a religion. In India, where it became widespread, it is a whole set of religious forms, from the simplest ritual, polytheistic to philosophical-mystical, monotheistic, and moreover, it is a designation of the Indian way of life with caste division, including the whole sum of life principles, norms, social and ethical values, beliefs and ideas, rituals and cults, myths and legends, everyday life and holidays, etc. This is a kind of result that summarizes a long and complex history religious life and the quests of the peoples of Hindustan.

Its foundations are laid in the Vedic religion, which was brought by the Aryan tribes who invaded India in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Vedas - collections of texts, including four main ones: the oldest collection of hymns - Rigveda, collections of prayer spells and rituals - Samaveda and Yajurveda and a book of chants and magic spells- Atharva Veda. The religion of the Aryans was polytheistic. The Vedas mention dozens and hundreds of gods. One of them is Indra, the god of thunder and lightning. Two groups of gods oppose each other - asuras and devas. Asuras include Varuna (in some texts he is the supreme god). Mitra (friend) is the solar god and protector of people, Vishnu did not play a significant role in the Vedas. Most of the Vedic gods are a thing of the past, only a few are preserved in the memory of the people, and Vishnu became the most important religious character in the later Indian religion. Another object of worship is Soma, a sacred intoxicating drink that was used in cult activities and served as a sacrifice to the gods. Subsequently, the devas became good spirits among the Indians, and the asuras became evil, along with the rakshasas. Indra and other good gods fight against evil spirits.

In the Vedas there is no mention of sanctuaries and temples, images of gods, or professional priesthood. It was one of the “primitive” tribal religions.

Second period in the history of Indian religion - Brahmanical It replaces the Vedic in the 1st millennium BC. e., when despotic states emerged in the Indus and Ganges valleys and the basis of the caste system was formed. The most ancient castes are the Brahmans (hereditary priesthood), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, cattle breeders, traders) and Shudras (literally servants - a powerless caste of slaves). The first three castes were considered noble, they were called twice-born.

Monument to religion and legislation of this period - laws of Manu, compiled around the 5th century. BC e. and sanctifying castes as established by the gods. The highest caste is the Brahmins (Brahmins): “Brahman, born to guard the treasury of dharma (sacred law), occupies the highest place on earth as the ruler of all beings.” His main occupation is to study the Vedas and teach them to others. Everyone belonging to the three noble castes undergoes an initiation ceremony, which is considered as a “second birth”.

Becomes the Supreme God in the Brahmanical religion new god- Brahma, or Brahma, from different parts from whose body different castes arose: from the mouth - the Brahmans, from the hands - the Kshatriyas, from the thighs - the Vaishyas, from the legs - the Shudras. In the beginning it was a religion in which central place occupied by ritual, sacrifice - to living beings, people, ancestors, gods and brahmana. “Every day a ritual of food is performed - a ritual for living beings. Every day you should give alms - a ritual to people. Funeral ceremonies should be held daily - a rite for the ancestors. Every day one must make sacrifices to the gods, including the so-called burning of wood - a ritual to the gods. What is the sacrifice for a brahmana? Penetration (into the essence) of the sacred teaching.” At the same time, there were no public temples and public sacrifices; private sacrifices were available only to the nobility. The cult becomes aristocratic, the gods acquire the character of caste gods, and the Shudras are generally removed from the official cult.

Further development led from ritual to knowledge. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. The doctrine of karma begins to take shape, which becomes the cornerstone of the Indian religion. The law of karma is the law of retribution and retribution; with one’s behavior, everyone predetermines their fate in the next incarnation. During the Brahman period, religious and philosophical literature appeared - the Upanishads, theological and philosophical works. First - texts of brahmanas with an explanation of the meaning and meaning of Vedic sacrifices. Not only brahmins, but also ascetic hermits, military leaders, etc. played an important role in their development. The Upanishad system is the fruit of thought different eras and schools. Its central problem is the problem of life and death, the question of what is the carrier of life: water, breath, wind or fire? The Upanishads substantiate the belief in reincarnation and the doctrine of retribution for crimes committed.

Gradually the ancient Brahmanical religion of sacrifice and knowledge became Hinduism - the teaching of love and reverence, which found its strongest support in the Bhagavad Gita, a book that, not without reason, is sometimes called the New Testament of Hinduism. Its development was influenced by those that arose in the VI-V centuries. BC e. Buddhism and Jainism are teachings that rejected the caste system and prioritized the deliverance of each person from suffering through his own efforts. These teachings recognized rebirth and karma, and the ethical doctrine of righteous path life. In order to survive the fight against Buddhism and Jainism, the old Brahmanical religion had to change in many ways, absorbing certain elements of these young religions, becoming closer and more understandable to people, giving them the opportunity to take part in the cult, in public public ceremonies and rituals. From this time on, Hindu temples began to appear. The first, most ancient temples in India were Buddhist, and in imitation of them, Brahman ones also appeared. The revered gods are embodied in sculptural and pictorial form, acquiring anthropomorphic features (even with several heads and faces and many arms). This god, housed in a temple dedicated to him, was understandable to every believer.

Such gods can be loved or feared, one can rely on them. In Hinduism, savior gods appear who have an earthly incarnation (avatar).

The most important of the many gods of Hinduism is considered to be the trinity (trimurti) - Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, who divided (although not clearly) the main inherent supreme god functions - creative, destructive and protective. Hindus are mostly divided into Shaivites and Vaishnavites, depending on who they see as their chosen one. In the cult of Shiva, a creative moment came to the fore - the cult of vitality and masculinity. Shiva's attribute is a bull Find it. Stone lingams in temples and home altars symbolize the life-giving potency of Shiva. On Shiva's forehead is the third eye - the eye of the wrathful destroyer. The wives of Shiva are goddesses of fertility, the personification of the feminine principle. They are revered under different names, sacrifices are made to them, including human ones. The feminine principle is called Shakti. His most famous avatars are the fertility goddesses Durga and Kali. The combined name of all the hypostases of Shiva's Wives is Davy, Many temples are dedicated to her.

The cult of Vishnu, the god, has a peculiar character. close to people, soft, performing a protective function. His relationship with his wife Lakshmi is the personification of tender, selfless love. Vishnu has countless transformations (avatars), the most beloved in India are Rama and Krishna. Rama is the hero of the ancient Indian epic Ramayana. Krishna is an ancient, pre-Aryan deity in origin (literally “black”). In the Mahabharata he appears as a pan-Indian deity. Being an adviser to the main character - the warrior Arjuna, he reveals to him higher meaning heavenly and ethical law (this interpretation of the law was included in the Bhagavad Gita, in the form of a chapter, and from the Bhagavad Gita - in the Mahabharata). Later, he transformed from a sage-philosopher into a rather frivolous shepherd god, generously giving everyone his love.

Numerous Hindu temples are served by brahmins - priests of Hinduism, bearers of its foundations religious culture, ritual rite, ethics, forms of family and everyday life. The authority of a brahmana in India is unquestioned. Among them were the most authoritative religious teachers - guru, teaching the younger generation the wisdom of Hinduism.

In Hinduism, magical techniques have been preserved - tantras - and a special type has developed religious practice tantrism. On the basis of magical techniques - tantras - formulas (mantras) arose in Hinduism, that is, sacred spells to which magical powers were attributed. Sacred words like “Om” and entire phrases, often incoherent, in Hinduism turned into spells - mantras, with the help of which you can quickly achieve what you want, for example, get rid of an illness, acquire supernatural energy “shakti”, etc. Mantras, talismans, amulets are all indispensable requisites of a sorcerer, who ranks much lower than a brahman. Often this is a semi-literate village healer.

Essential Feature religious life of India - numerous sects. Their religious leaders, gurus, are intermediaries between man and the gods and are almost gods themselves. Guru is a priest who has become a teacher of wisdom. As a rule, there is no struggle between sects; There are very few dogmas obligatory for all Hindus: recognition of the sacred authority of the Vedas, the doctrine of karma and transmigration of souls, belief in the divine establishment of castes. The rest is a huge diversity and fragmentation of sects. The ascetic school of yoga received particular development. At the end of the 15th century. a military-religious sect developed on the basis of Hinduism Sikhs.

Hinduism has features characteristic of world religions, but it is associated with the caste system and therefore could not go beyond the borders of India: to be a Hindu, you must belong to one of the castes by birth. However, Hinduism has big influence on the spiritual life of other peoples religious philosophy and different types of religious practices (yoga, etc.).

The social basis of Hinduism is the Indian caste system. It is theoretically based on the doctrine of the divine One Principle and two tendencies inherent in life: the movement from unity to diversity takes place in the cycle of births. Birth in the human world always takes place in a place determined by the caste system, and this system itself belongs to the diversity of forms generated by the One Principle. Belonging to one caste or another is not a matter of chance, it is a manifestation of an inevitable necessity. Human existence, according to Hinduism, is existence in a caste. Caste is the living space in which an individual exists, there is no other. The four original castes were fragmented into many sub-castes, of which there are today between two and three thousand in India. A person excluded from his caste becomes an outlaw. Caste determines a person’s place in Indian society, his rights, behavior, even his appearance, including the clothing, forehead markings, and jewelry he wears. Caste restrictions in India are taboo and are lifted only in rare cases. Violation of Caste norms is followed by severe punishments and painful “purification” rituals. Each caste has its own place in outer space, its own season, its own animal world. Human coexistence is seen in this context as a superhuman institution, a law of being. In the many castes to which a person belongs by birth and from which he cannot leave within the limits of his earthly life, caste law prevails as a unifying principle. The great world law (dharma) manifests itself in the human world, organized in Castes, as a differentiated caste law, which establishes its own regulations for each caste. The caste system is rooted in the eternal order of things. The point of maintaining caste distinctions is to maintain, preserve eternal order. Life in a caste is not the final goal, but an episode. Final goal- nirvana, when all worldly differences are removed. Caste is a step towards self-realization.

Chinese religions are religions of order and a decent life. Many features of the religious life of China were laid down in ancient times. In the Yellow River Valley already in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. An urban-type civilization developed, known as Yin. The Yin people revered many gods - spirits to whom they made sacrifices. The supreme deity was Shandi, at the same time the legendary ancestor of the Yin people, their totem ancestor. Over time, the attitude towards Shandi as the first ancestor, who must first of all take care of the well-being of his people, came to the fore. This circumstance played a huge role. It led, on the one hand, to the fact that the cult of ancestors and reliance on tradition became the basis of the religious systems of China, and on the other hand, to the strengthening of the rational principle: not to dissolve in the absolute, but to learn to live with dignity in accordance with the accepted norm, to live, valuing life itself, and not for the sake of future salvation, finding bliss in another world. Another feature is the socially insignificant role of the priesthood and clergy. There has never been anything like Brahmins in China. The functions of priests were often performed by officials who were a respected and privileged class, and religious functions in honor of Heaven, deities, spirits, and ancestors were not the main thing in their activities. The ritual of fortune telling, which was the main point in ritual communication with the divine ancestors led by Shandi and was accompanied by sacrifices, was considered a matter of national importance; fortune tellers had to be people involved in power. Over time, in the 1st millennium BC. e., when the Zhou dynasty established itself, the cult of Heaven supplanted Shandi as the supreme deity, but the cult of Shandi and the ancestors itself remained. The Chinese ruler became the son of Heaven, and his country began to be called the Celestial Empire. The cult of Heaven became the main one in China, and its implementation in full was the prerogative of the ruler himself, the son of Heaven, who fulfilled his filial doge and rendered the necessary honors to the heavenly father, the guardian of the world order.

The ruler, who performed the functions of the high priest, was assisted by officials who acted as priests. Ancient China, therefore, did not know priests in in its own sense words, he did not know the great personified gods and temples in their honor. The activities of priest-officials were aimed primarily at fulfilling administrative duties designed to maintain stability social structure sanctioned by Heaven. Not mystical insights, not ecstasy and merging in love with the divine, but rituals and ceremonies as a matter of national importance stood at the center of the religious system that determined the face of this civilization.

Philosophical thinking in ancient China began with the division of all things into male and female principles. The masculine principle, yang, was associated with the sun, with everything light, bright, strong; feminine, yin, - with the moon, with the dark, gloomy and weak. But both principles united harmoniously, forming all that exists. On this basis, an idea of the great path of Tao is formed - a universal law, a symbol of truth and virtue.

Unlike other religions, in Chinese we find not a connection between man and God, mediated by the figure of a priest, but a society based on virtue, with Heaven as a symbol of the highest order.

In the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., between 800 and 200 AD. BC e., there is a sharp turn in history, which K. Jaspers proposed to call axial time. In China at this time, a renewal of religious life began, associated with the activities of Confucius and Lao Tzu. Two Chinese religions emerge, significantly different - Confucianism, ethically oriented, and Taoism, gravitating towards mysticism.

Confucius (Kun Tzu, 551-479 BC) lived in an era of unrest and civil strife. Ideas that could be opposed to all this had to receive moral support, and Confucius, in search of this support, turned to ancient traditions, contrasting them with the reigning chaos. Since the establishment at the turn of the 3rd -2nd centuries. BC e. Han Dynasty, Confucianism becomes the official ideology, Confucian norms and values became generally accepted and became a symbol of “Chinese”. First of all, in the form of ceremonial norms, Confucianism penetrated as an equivalent religious ritual into the life of every Chinese, regulating his life, squeezing it into a form that has been worked out for centuries. In imperial China, Confucianism played the role of the main religion, the principle of organization of the state and society, which existed for over two thousand years in an almost unchanged guide. The highest deity in this religion was considered a strict and virtue-oriented Heaven, and the great prophet was not a religious teacher proclaiming the truth of the divine revelation given to him, like Buddha or Jesus, but the sage Confucius, offering moral improvement within the framework of strictly fixed ethical principles, consecrated by the authority of antiquity. normal

The main object of Confucian cult was the spirits of ancestors. Confucius performed very conscientiously religious ceremonies and he taught their constant fulfillment not for the sake of gaining mercy, but because their fulfillment is “fair and befitting of a person.” Strict observance of rituals is the main rule of life, the support of the entire existing order. Filial piety and veneration of ancestors is the most important duty of man. “Let a father be a father, a son a son, a sovereign a sovereign, an official an official.” Confucius sought to put the world in order by subordinating the “way” (tao) of man to the path of Heaven, offering his ideal of the “noble man”, drawn from an idealized antiquity, as a model for people to follow, drawn from an idealized antiquity, when rulers were wise, officials were selfless and loyal, and the people prospered. A noble person has two main virtues - humanity and a sense of duty. “A noble man thinks about duty, a low man cares about profit,” taught Confucius. Through correct behavior, a person achieves harmony with the eternal order of the cosmos, and thus his life is determined by the eternal beginning. The power of custom is what makes Earth and Heaven work together, through which the four seasons come into harmony, the sun and the moon shine, the stars make their way, through which the stream flows, through which all things are accomplished, through which good and evil are separated, through which we find the correct expression of joy and anger, the highest is clarified, due to which all things, despite their change, avoid confusion. If we recall the teachings about yin and yang, about the feminine (dark) and masculine (light) principles that unite, then a person has the opportunity to influence events in the world and his life, out of inner duty promoting cosmic harmony.

In the VI century. BC e. the teachings of Lao Tzu are taking shape, whom many researchers today consider to be a legendary figure. The treatise in which this teaching is set out, “Tao Te Ching,” dates back to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. This mystical teaching, on the basis of which Taoism is formed. Tao here means the “path” inaccessible to man, rooted in eternity, the divine primal being itself, the Absolute, from which all earthly phenomena and man also arise. No one created the Great Tao, everything comes from it, nameless and formless, it gives origin, name and form to everything in the world. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. The highest goal of the Chinese Taoists was to move away from the passions and vanity of life to primitive simplicity and naturalness. Among the Taoists were the first ascetic hermits in China, who contributed to the emergence of the Taoist religion from philosophical Taoism with its Temples and priests, holy books, magical rituals. However, in this world, where people are guided by their aspirations and the ethical goals they set, the connection with the fundamental principle is broken. A typical situation for many religions arises: their existence in a world that is losing holiness: when the great Tao declines, human love and justice appear.

Virtues, if they are imposed on a person from the outside, serve as a symptom of the fact that he is isolated from the Absolute. There is no need to demand the fulfillment of ethical goals if unity with the eternal is achieved. In this case, they are necessarily realized in reality. A conversion, a return to the Eternal, a “return to the roots” is necessary. On this basis grows Lao Tzu's teaching on non-action or non-action (wu-wei). Ethics proclaims undemandingness, satisfaction with one's fate, renunciation of desires and aspirations as the basis of eternal order. This ethic of patience with evil and renunciation of one's desires is the basis of religious salvation.

The mysticism of Lao Tzu has little in common with vulgarized Taoism, which highlights magical practices - spells, rituals, predictions, a kind of cult of creating the elixir of life, with the help of which they hope to achieve immortality.

Greek religion The pre-Homeric period perceives the environment as something animate, as inhabited by blind demonic forces that are embodied in sacred objects and phenomena. Demonic forces also receive personal embodiment in countless demonic creatures living in caves, mountains, springs, trees, etc. For example, the demon of sources is strong and at the same time, like a satyr, he is a demon of fertility. Hermes, in later times one of the great Olympian gods, was originally, as his name suggests (literally: a pile of stones), a demon of stone. The pre-Homeric religion of the Greeks is tied to the Earth, from which everything flows, which gives birth to everything, including Heaven. Her basic realities are earth, conception, blood and death. These forces associated with the Earth continue to exist in Homer as the dark basis of all things, and the Earth itself in this consciousness appears as the ancestor goddess, as the source and womb of the whole world - gods and people.

Peace in this primeval religious consciousness appears as a world full of disorder, disproportion, disharmony, reaching the point of ugliness, plunging into horror.

When in the 2nd millennium BC. The Greeks invaded Hellas and found a highly developed culture here known as the Cretan-Mycenaean culture. From this culture, its religion, the Greeks adopted many motifs that passed into their religion. This applies to many Greek deities, such as Athena and Artemis, whose Mycenaean origin can be considered indisputable.

From this motley world of demonic forces and divine images, the world of Homer’s gods was formed, which we learn about from the Iliad and Odyssey. In this world, people are commensurate with the gods. The love of glory raises people to the level of gods and makes them heroes who can overcome the will of the gods.

These gods embody the eternal ideas that permeate Greek piety and its concept of sins in the face of these gods. The most serious ones are those that in one way or another mean that a person has exceeded boundaries and limits. Too much happiness causes “the envy of the gods and corresponding acts of counteraction. The world created by Zeus and the great heroes is a world that is based not on disharmony and horror, but on a system of order, harmony, and beauty. The gods punish those who encroach on the harmony established by their power, on that reasonable orderliness that is expressed in the concept of “cosmos”. In Greek myths, beauty, embodied in the Olympian gods, is the principle of cosmic life.

This classical religion Homer later experiences a crisis and comes to the brink of self-denial. With the beginning of the Greek enlightenment, in the face of philosophy, awakening ethical feelings and concepts, myths about the great gods turned out to be inappropriate and caused opposition. Rationalistic doubt leads to ridicule of the primitiveness of traditional ideas about the gods.

But along with the fading of the old religion, a strong awakening of religious feelings and new religious searches is developing. This is primarily religiosity associated with mysteries. The old Olympic religion reaches its classical conclusion at the end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century. BC e. in the person of such thinkers and poets as Herodotus, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides.

SHINTOISM, ZOROAASTRIANISM, CHINESE RELIGION, TAOISM, JAINISM, SIKHISM

Chinese religion

Chinese religion is characterized by the coexistence of two parallel traditions: Confucianism and Taoism. Initially an ethical teaching calling for the observance of ancient virtues, it was later filled with religious content. The cult of ancestors is characteristic. The founder of Confucianism is the ancient sage Confucius (c. 550-470 BC). Taoism, the founders of which were Laozi and Zhuangzi (6th century BC), has absorbed many elements of ancient folk beliefs, and is characterized by the search for “longevity” or “immortality.” Distributed in areas where Chinese people live densely.

Zoroastrianism

This religion, widespread in antiquity and the early Middle Ages in Central Asia, Iran, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan and a number of countries in the Near and Middle East, was preserved among the Parsis in India and the Hebrians in Iran. Named after the prophet Zoroaster (Iranian Zarathushtra). Sacred Canon- "Avesta". The basic principles of Zoroastrianism: the opposition of two “eternal principles” - good and evil, the struggle between which constitutes the content of the world process; faith in the final victory of good, personified in the image of the supreme deity Ahuramazda. Fire plays the main role in the ritual of Zoroastrianism.

Taoism

This is a Chinese religion and one of the main religious and philosophical schools. It arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. based on beliefs of a shamanic nature, at the beginning of our era. formed into a developed religion. By the 12th century. "Tao Tsang" - a body of literature of Taoism - was created. The goal of Taoist adherents is to achieve unity with the fundamental principle of the world - Tao and through alchemy and psychophysical exercises to gain immortality. In certain periods he enjoyed the patronage of the authorities. There are followers of Taoism in the PRC, where there is an Association of Taoist Believers.

Jainism

This is a religion in India (about 3 million followers). The founder is considered to be Vardhamana, called Gina and Mahavira (VI century BC). Like Buddhism, it was a reaction to ritualism and the abstract speculativeness of Brahmanism. Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas and opened access to its community to men and women of all varnas (castes). Jainism retained the Hindu doctrine of rebirth of souls and reward for actions. The goal of the Jains is considered liberation from rebirth (nirvana), achievable, according to Jainism, for an ascetic who observes strict rules, in particular ahimsa - not causing harm to living beings. Jains are divided into ascetic monks and laymen, engaged primarily in trade and usury activities (according to Jainism, observing ahimsa makes farming impossible for a Jain, because plowing the land can entail killing living creatures - worms, insects).

Sikhism

This is a sect in Hinduism in the 16th - 17th centuries, which turned into an independent religion, which became widespread mainly in Punjab. The basis is monotheism, the denial of idolatry, asceticism, castes, preaching the equality of Sikhs before God and the holy war with non-believers.

Shintoism

This is a religion common in Japan. Shintoism is based on the cult of nature deities and ancestors. The highest deity is the solar goddess Amaterasu, her descendant is Jimmu (the mythical ancestor of the Japanese emperors). In 1868-1945 state religion. Shintoism was characterized by the deification of the person of the Japanese emperor. Formally, the cult of the emperor was abolished in 1945, but the deceased Japanese emperors are still revered by some Shintoists as gods.

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