Thomas Hobbes

Leviathan

Thomas Hobbes was born in Westport, a place near Malmesbury, in the south of England. In 1608 he graduated from Oxford University, where he received an excellent classical education. The young philosopher entered the service of the Dukes of Devonshire. This service was to last almost 70 years, with a short break. Hobbes worked for several years as secretary to Francis Bacon (1561–1626).

Between 1610 and 1636, Hobbes made three long trips across continental Europe. In 1629, he became interested in “natural philosophy,” without abandoning his studies in ethics and politics. In the late 1630s, Hobbes began work on a philosophical trilogy consisting of books Decorpore, Dehomine, Derive (About the body, About the person, About the citizen), Having found refuge in Paris in 1642 from the upheavals of English political life, the philosopher became a friend of Mersenne (see note to the chapter on Descartes. - Note lane), which created a kind of small unofficial university around itself. There he meets Gassendi and Sorbier. (Samuel Sorbière (1615–1670) - French physician and philosopher. - Note trans.) Hobbes reads the works of Descartes, but does not share his views. The book was published in 1642 About the citizen and in 1651 - Leviathan, which became the main work of the philosopher’s life. (Leviathan is a monster from Phoenician mythology.) Returning to England in 1651, Hobbes completed work on the book About the body. In 1654, the book was published, marking the beginning of endless disputes between the author and the mathematician Wallis. In 1658 a treatise appeared About a human. Throughout his long old age, Hobbes was subject to constant criticism from many scientists and philosophers. He died in 1679, already serving the third generation of Dukes of Devonshire.

General theory of power

Thomas Hobbes was the first major modern philosopher to be deeply interested in politics.

Leviathan written by him in his mature years. Although Hobbes published his works without adhering to a strict logical order, they are all parts of a single plan, carefully thought out back in the 1630s. All these works fit into one general system, and each of them occupies its specific place in it. main topic, the core running through all the philosopher’s works, is the theory of power. He examines the issue of power from the perspective of various sciences: physics, anthropology and, of course, politics. Hobbes writes his books in English and Latin. First option Leviathan, in English, appeared in 1651. The book was translated into Latin only in 1668. However, it can be assumed that Hobbes first wrote a number of chapters from this work in Latin, since the English version of the book is less developed than some chapters of the Latin translation.

Potentia and potesias

When talking about power, Hobbes uses English in the word power, but in the Latin translation he uses two terms: "potentia" And "potestas". The first of these (potentia) means power as power, the ability to exert influence or be subject to it. This power is manifested in action, the result of which depends only on external circumstances. Second term (potestas) refers to authority subject to law (political authority). Unlike natural power, political power is created artificially.

For Hobbes, power as a concept is simultaneously the source, object and goal of knowledge:

“Source, since knowledge is based on the power to know a person. An object, because knowledge is an understanding of the ways and laws by which objects and beings experience or influence each other. The goal - for the ultimate purpose of science is the dominance of man not only over nature, but also over his own destiny.”

According to Hobbes, the science of power is essentially the “science of man.” This is the science opposite to the “science” of God (after all, we know nothing about God; theology cannot replace science). The doctrine of man is a “science” because it uses rigorous scientific analysis as its method.

Hobbes disagrees with the basic tenets of Cartesianism. He believes that there is no innate truth. A person can create a science of power only by studying human society... By examining the ability to cognition and the forces that move an individual person, it is possible to determine the source of political power (from the treatise Elements of laws, natural and political). From knowledge of human nature and the characteristics of power, one can derive a theory of the natural state of human society (Hotel, About a person). On this basis, it is possible to build a political anthropology that unites all areas of science and studies primarily human beings. (Leviathan).

This work, although it occupies an impressive volume (the complete French edition contains 780 pages), is well written and easy to read. It consists of four parts, sharply different from one another (some of them were published in French in separate editions): “About Man”, “About the State”, “About the Christian State”, “The Kingdom of Darkness”.

1. About the person

Hobbes begins his treatise with an examination of sensation. First he describes it from a physical and physiological point of view, and then from a mental one. An external object causes a movement in the sense organ, which is transmitted first to the brain and then to the heart, either directly or through the medium of the environment. Then the movement begins reverse direction. This outward movement appears to us external reality. Hobbes tries to combine three aspects of the issue in his theory: a mechanistic explanation of sensation, subjective confirmation of feeling in consciousness, and an explanation of the resulting perception of external reality.

The sensation is present in consciousness in the form of an image, thought or fantasy. These terms serve as synonyms for Hobbes. Human prudence is explained by the fact that empirical expectations are rooted in the mechanism of associations. Prudence differs from science, which is based on calculation, on the precise use of language at the level of both definitions and evidence: “If rich experience is prudence, then rich knowledge is wisdom.”(proverb of that time). According to Hobbes, science is a construction. Geometry is true in its essence, since the geometric scientist builds it from various components, using conditional definitions. Where it is impossible to use a geometric model, science ends. Any real science is knowledge of all the consequences arising from definitions related to the topic under study.

Chapter VI deals with the question of passions. Hobbes believes that life is essentially a continuous movement of the organs of the body, occurring regardless of our desire. This is organic movement, as opposed to voluntary movement (for example, moving from place to place). The objects we perceive convey movement to the heart, and therefore can promote or hinder organic movement. Pleasure is what we experience when the objects we perceive correspond to organic movement, while dissatisfaction, on the contrary, arises when there is a contradiction between these elements. Attraction and aversion, therefore, are the beginning of a movement towards mastery or avoidance, invisible to us.

Passion directs a person to what is beneficial for him, that is, to an object corresponding to his organic movement. But passion can also be an end in itself. Some passions are difficult to explain by an organic movement (the desire for scientific work, the desire to fight, and therefore risk life, etc.). However, basically a person manages his relations with the outside world not on the basis of free will, but by reconciling his passions and the knowledge (sensual, rational or: scientific) of external conditions that he possesses. Hobbes devotes Chapter VIII to intellectual virtues. Virtues are valued by everyone. Some of them are innate (for example, mental alertness); others are acquired on the basis of habit or education. Differences in minds are determined by passions arising from differences between people in physiological condition, feelings, and also in culture. Thus desire is also a form of individual difference.

Speaking about knowledge (Chapter IX), Hobbes distinguishes between knowledge of a fact (history) and the sequential dependence of one fact on another (philosophy). After this he moves on to the question of power (chapter X): “The power of a person, taken in general terms, is his available means of achieving some visible good in the future. It can be either natural or instrumental." Natural power is associated with personal physical strength: Instrumental are those forms of power that allow you to gain even greater power:

“The greatest human power is that which is composed of the forces of the majority of people, united by agreement, and transferred to one person, physical or civil, who uses all these forces either according to his own will, such as, for example, the power of the state, or depending on the will of each individually, what is the power of the party or league of different parties ... "

Hobbes then considers various shapes powers: wealth, reputation, success, nobility, beauty - and the areas in which they manifest themselves. About knowledge, for example, he says this:

“Knowledge is a small power, for it does not manifest itself externally and therefore is not noticed in anyone, and not everyone has it, but only a few, and these few have knowledge of only a few things, and the nature of knowledge is such that to recognize its presence in anyone “or only one who has mastered it to a significant extent can do it.”

Applied arts (techniques) have received the most recognition in society because they are useful for fortification, construction of military vehicles, etc.

“Even though people (as the majority do) value themselves as highly as they please, their true value is not higher than what others value them at.”

This chapter ends with a discussion about the dignity or, as we would say today, the level of competence of a person:

“The dignity of a person is a thing distinct from his value or value, as well as from his merits, and consists in a special gift or ability for that for which he is considered worthy.”

In the next chapter, considering human morals (manners) in all their diversity, Hobbes shows that in man there is a constant, tireless desire to acquire more and more power, a desire that ends only with death: This explains wars. Even when a person becomes a king, this is not enough for him. Why? Because there is always a risk of losing what you have. Therefore, the king seeks to increase his possessions.

In Chapter XII, Hobbes analyzes in detail the relationship between man and religion.

The philosopher then moves on to questions about the state of nature, the laws of nature, social agreements and contract, logically moving on to the topics of book II. In the state of nature, people wage a constant war of all against all. In this state, “every person has the right to everything, even to the life of every other person...” Favorable time for the conclusion of an agreement and a social contract occurs when reason requires it and all people strive for peace, and continues as long as there is hope of achieving peace... And then,

"…V If others consent to this, a person must agree to renounce the right to all things to the extent necessary in the interests of peace and self-defense, and be content with such a degree of freedom in relation to other people that he would allow other people in relation to to myself",

Hobbes analyzes all aspects of the contract for the mutual transfer of rights. Extremely important "implement agreements once they are reached" because otherwise people will again slide back to the natural state. Hobbes's definition of the state of nature is well known, which he characterizes elsewhere with the formula “Man is a wolf to man.” This concept was fiercely criticized by Rousseau. According to Rousseau, the state of war of all against all, which Hobbes spoke about, is not the initial, but the final state of society (see chapter 9 in our book).

2. About the state

As a result of a social contract, a state is formed, that is, organized social life. The entire second is dedicated to the state part of Leviathan.

“The state is a single person, for whose actions a great many people have made themselves responsible by mutual agreement among themselves, so that this person can use the power and means of all of them as he deems necessary for their peace and common defense.”

An idea put forward earlier by Hobbes in his treatise About the citizen that every political organization begins with democracy, in Book II Leviathan almost forgotten. Although theoretically, participants in a social contract can either share power among everyone (in which case democracy is established), or transfer it to a supreme assembly (aristocracy), or to a sovereign (monarchy), By it is the latter form of government that is the wisest:

“...Comparing the monarchy with the other two forms of government, we can notice the following... Every bearer of the face of the people or a member of the assembly who is such a bearer is at the same time the bearer of his own natural face. Therefore, no matter how diligently such a person, as a political person, cares about ensuring the common good, he, however, more or less assiduously also cares about ensuring his personal welfare, the welfare of his family, relatives and friends, and, if common interests collide with his private interests, he in most cases gives preference to his own interests, because people’s passions are usually stronger than their reason. General interests therefore benefit most where they coincide more closely with private interests. This is precisely the coincidence that exists in the monarchy. The wealth, power and glory of a monarch are due to the wealth, power and reputation of his subjects.”

A social contract is an act in which each of the participants declares: “I give power to this person or this collection of people and give him the right to govern himself.” Hobbes clearly states that contract involves man giving up his natural right. To give someone power means to make him your representative. The sovereign is thus the supreme representative of all his subjects. It should not be opposed by any “representative body.” And no subject has the right to challenge the decision of the sovereign, because he has already approved this decision in advance. He recognized it as his own even before it was pronounced. The highest expression of this preliminary recognition is absolutism. The sovereign therefore has enormous rights. The only thing that can relieve a subject from the obligation to obey him is an immediate threat hanging over his life.

Book II examines in detail other issues: political (government, council, functions of the sovereign’s representative), economic (“On the nutrition of the state and the production of offspring by it”), legal (civil law; crimes and circumstances that relieve punishment and mitigate them; punishment and compensation for losses) and sociological (which weakens the state and leads to its collapse). It ends with the chapter "About The Kingdom of God through Nature" logically leading the reader to the third part.

3. About the Christian state

In the third part Leviathan it says that church power must be subordinate to political power. Based on the texts of the Old and New Testaments, Hobbes shows that even Jesus did not try to create the Kingdom of God, which would oppose earthly power. The Kingdom of God is located in another world.

In Chapter XLII About church authority Hobbes divides history into two periods: the one when the sovereigns had not yet professed the true faith, and the one when they had already accepted it.

If a subject lives in a faith different from the faith of the sovereign, then, according to Hobbes, he must believe only in his soul, and in practical matters fulfill the demands of the authorities:

“But what can anyone object if some king, or senate, or other sovereign forbids us to believe in Christ? To this I answer that such a prohibition will remain ineffective, for faith and unbelief never follow human orders. Faith is a gift of God, which no one can give or take away with the promise of reward and the threat of torture... Everything that a subject is forced to do out of obedience to his sovereign, and everything that he does not from his own impulse, but in obedience to the laws of his country, all such the act is not the act of the subject, but of his sovereign, and it is not the subject who in this case denies Christ before men, but his ruler and the law of his country.”

If the sovereign adheres to the true faith, then he, and not the church, must monitor the purity of public morals.

“When the pope claims the supremacy in matters of morality, he teaches men to disobey their civil sovereigns, which is an erroneous doctrine, contrary to many of the rules handed down to us in Scripture by our Savior and his apostles.”

Hobbes stands on the side of the English sovereign in his struggle with the Pope. He continues:

“...This whole dispute about whether Christ gave jurisdiction to the pope alone or to all other bishops besides him is a dispute de lana caprina [literally: “about goat’s hair” (lat.), i.e. about trifles, wasted]. For none of them has (where they are not sovereigns) any jurisdiction. Indeed, jurisdiction is the right to hear and decide disputes between people, which can only belong to one who has the power to prescribe rules regarding what is lawful and what is unlawful, that is, to make laws and, with the sword of justice, force people to obey his decisions made by himself or by the judges appointed by him for this purpose: and no one else has such power legally except the civil sovereign. […] The pope himself has no right of jurisdiction in the dominions of other monarchs […] on the contrary, all bishops, insofar as they have the right of jurisdiction, receive this right from their civil sovereigns […].”

It is also noticeable that Hobbes in this long chapter supports the Anglican Church in its struggle with Rome.

4. About the kingdom of darkness

The fourth part is perhaps the shortest in the entire book. This is a furious attack on Catholic Church, which has arrogated to itself the right to interfere in the affairs of earthly states. Here is a short excerpt from Hobbes's reasoning on this topic:

“From the pope’s claim to be the supreme vicar of Christ in the present church (considered to be the kingdom of Christ of which the Gospel speaks), follows […] the resolution of the fourth council of the Lateran, which met under Pope Innocent III […]: If any king after warning the pope does not cleanse his kingdom of heresies and, being excommunicated for this from the church, does not give satisfaction for a year, then his subjects are released from their obligation to obey him, where by heresy are meant all those opinions that the Roman Church has forbidden to support. Because of this, it happens that as soon as the political interests of the pope come into conflict with the political interests of other Christian kings, as very often happens, such a mist arises among the subjects of these kings that they cannot distinguish between a foreigner who has seized the throne of their legitimate sovereign and to those whom they themselves placed on this throne; and in this darkness of reason they are driven to fight against each other, not distinguishing enemies from friends, and all this in the interest of the other person’s ambition.”

Review, conclusion and application

The English, and therefore the complete French, editions end with a brief overview of everything that has been said and a conclusion. In conclusion, the circumstances under which supporters of a legitimate but overthrown government may submit to the winner are examined. This refers to the moral problem facing the royalists after the overthrow and death of the king and the establishment of a republic under the firm hand of Cromwell. In these circumstances, in accordance with his theory, Hobbes speaks out for cooperation with the new government, while refraining from statements that could be perceived as justifying revolution and regicide.

To the Latin edition of 1668, Hobbes added an appendix, occupying about a twelfth of the entire length of the book. (This application was first published in Russian in the translation by N. A. Fedorov in the cited publication. - Note trans.) Its text consists of three chapters: On the Nicene Creed, On Heresy, On Some Objections to Leviathan. As F. Tricot notes, in 1666 Hobbes had serious reasons to fear persecution for the anti-religious nature of his writings. In the application, he tries to defend himself against these accusations. He justifies his teaching and considers laws punishing heresy. F, Tricot explains:

“In any case, it is clear that his approach to religious problems is often ambiguous and unexpected, despite the fact that the author calls himself orthodox: even in Chapter III of the Appendix, written as proof of the impeccable purity of his faith, he does not hesitate to declare that God is a body.

A comment

On philosophical theory author Leviathan there is an undoubted imprint of the socio-political situation in which his work was created. At that time, society was gripped by an acute crisis. We mean a social and institutional crisis that has affected all aspects of European societies and culture, that is, science, politics and religion. There was a need for a revision of their objects and interrelations, that is, for what we would today call an “institutional analysis” of society as a whole. In this situation, Hobbes makes an attempt in his writings to outline the conditions and boundaries true knowledge, establish the rules underlying the political game (social attitudes), and determine the position and role of religion in the state.

The place of Leviathan in Hobbes's creative heritage

In 1651, when he came out Leviathan, philosophical doctrine Hobbes had already practically taken shape, and, according to the author’s plan, this work was supposed to become a kind of synthesis, generalization, as well as a scientific justification of those working hypotheses that the author expressed in his previous works. Comparing with them Leviathan, However, we can find many new judgments to which we should pay attention.

This essay purports to be truly scientific. The book is distinguished by its rigorous deductive approach to anthropology. For example, in the first part (Chapter XII) Hobbes examines religion from the point of view of the anthropology of faith. In the treatise About the citizen religion may still seem almost the basis of duty, a justification moral principles expressed in natural laws. Here it is considered only as a complex passion, although it has special meaning, since it determines whether people's behavior will be peaceful or warlike.

IN Leviathan a new theory of personality and social representation has been put forward. The latter is seen as a legal relationship between the initiator of the action (that is, the one who “confers power”) and its performer. The right to enter into an agreement also appears in social contract theory. After all, rights are transferred not only to things, but also to actions and power over a person. With the conclusion of a social contract, the opposite phenomenon also occurs. Having “rights-oriented” as a support, the sovereign himself must become a guarantor of the fulfillment of civic duty.

IN Leviathan developed complex and detailed theory of the state. This work first put forward an institutional logical scheme, which to a certain extent is still valid today. Society received a theory that allowed for the development of forms of statehood. The logic of social institutions smoothes out the shortcomings of the sovereign's governance. At the same time, it determines the rights and responsibilities of a citizen. As noted by I.-Sh. Zarqa, “political issues are made here dependent on social equilibrium, the theory of self-regulation of social institutions replaces the Aristotelian theory of their immutability.”

How to Define What Science Is

François Tricot notes that Hobbes, while distinguishing between prudence and science, does not deny that experience, properly analyzed, can be a source scientific knowledge. "All knowledge has its source from experience"- the philosopher writes in his Elements of laws. Similarly, in the preface to the second edition of the treatise About the citizen he claims that this work of his has scientific character, because the “relies on its own principles, learned by experience.” F. Tricot sees a certain contradiction here. On the one hand, Hobbes believes that science is built on the basis of conventions, and on the other, he puts forward the idea that it is built on the data of experience.

In matters of human knowledge, and especially in political research, Hobbes still relies mainly on experience. Leviathan written primarily based on the analysis of experimental data. As the author writes in the preface, “Every person, and especially a sovereign, should see in himself not this or that specific personality, but Humanity.” Hobbes's second definition of science is more narrow and relates only to "pure science".

Faith and politics

IN Leviathan contains rather superficial criticism Holy Scripture based only on rational arguments. By examining its content, Hobbes wishes to prove that some theological writings on Scripture are politically unacceptable. The purpose of Hobbes's philosophical works is to justify the existence republics(states - Note lane), that is, to legitimize sovereign(we use these terms in scientific significance). Religion has its rightful place, but it should never interfere with the affairs of secular power, which ensures peace and social balance. Based on religious texts, Hobbes tries to justify and justify secession Church of England from Catholic. From a philosophical point of view, this part, perhaps, today seems to be the “weakest” in his book, but it is also interesting as an illustration of the author’s political doctrine.

Hobbes's political philosophy is inseparable from the realities of his time. Even those parts are not free from their influence Leviathan, that they are mainly devoted to theory (books I and II). When writing them, the philosopher had in mind primarily the political problems of his era. Books III and IV would now have only historical value if Rome had finally stopped interfering in secular affairs. For a long time, popes did not require Christians to disobey sovereigns who made laws contrary to encyclicals. In a sense it can be said that Leviathan gave the church a specific place in public life, which she was forced to come to terms with. This was the case before John Paul II became pope, who seems to be eager to return to the times Leviathan.(Let's leave this tirade on the conscience of the author. Although he is not so wrong... - Note lane)

But still main reason, for which Hobbes is interesting to us to this day, is that, even while defending an absolute monarchy, he stood at the origins of the idea of "human rights".

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THOMAS HOBBS (1588-1679). His main works are “Philosophical Elements of the Doctrine of the Citizen” (1642) and “Leviathan” (1651).

Hobbes was a systematizer of Baconian materialism. The world, in his opinion, is a collection of bodies. Nothing incorporeal exists. It is impossible to separate thinking from the matter that thinks. All objects (bodies) and changes in them occur due to the mechanical movement of material elements.

Even spiritual life, which is made up of sensations, comes down to movements. Therefore, for him, people and animals are complex mechanisms whose actions are determined by external forces. Animate automata differ from inanimate ones in that the former have organs that retain previous impressions. In addition, they are able to compare new experiences with previous ones. Comparison creates the conditions for differentiation, which in turn is a condition for consciousness.

Hobbes laid these starting points as the basis for far-reaching conclusions: 1) denial of the existence of souls as special substances; 2) bodies are the only substances; and 3) belief in God is only a product of human imagination.

Knowledge, according to Hobbes, is carried out through ideas. The source of ideas can only be sensory perceptions of the external world. He rejected Descartes's point of view, according to which the starting point of reliable knowledge is thinking, and also opposed his doctrine of innate ideas. No idea can be innate: what is innate must always be present. In accordance with this, Hobbes believed that external feelings are the source not only of ideas, but also of all our knowledge.

Hobbes's doctrine of state and law became very widely known. In it, he tried to decompose such a complex whole as a state into its component elements, and explain the latter by simple laws of nature. He came to the idea of ​​the need to distinguish between two states of human society: natural and civil.

In the conditions of the 17th century. Hobbes' views were progressive. He destroyed the theistic prejudices of Baconian materialism. His theory of society and state contained the germs of a materialist understanding of social phenomena.

Philosophical views of D. Locke.

In England, a follower of Bacon and Hobbes was JOHN LOCKE(1632-1704). His main work is “An Essay on the Human Mind” (1690). In it, he criticizes Descartes' doctrine of innate ideas and substantiates the principle of materialistic sensationalism, i.e., the origin of all knowledge from sensory perception of the external world. People are not born with ready-made ideas, but knowledge is taken from experience and sensations. The head of a newborn is a blank slate on which life writes knowledge. Locke declared experience to be the only source of ideas. Experience is direct knowledge of objects, sensually given to the subject. Locke does not deny the mind's predisposition to knowledge, but knowledge itself does not exist in the head.

3 types of knowledge:

1) Initial (through feelings) - knowledge of individual things

2) Knowledge through inference

3) Intuition The elementary units of knowledge are ideas.

Locke distinguished between external experience (sensations) and internal experience (reflection - from the Latin reflexio - turning back). Knowledge is based on simple ideas, for example, excited in the mind by various qualities of bodies - PRIMARY, with which these ideas are similar (extension, figure, density, movement), or SECONDARY, with which the ideas are not similar (color, sound, smell, taste) .

By combining, juxtaposing, and abstracting, the mind forms complex and general ideas (modes, substances, and relations) from simple ideas. Locke distinguished between clear and vague ideas, real and fantastic, adequate to their prototypes and inadequate. Knowledge is true only insofar as ideas are consistent with reality.

Thomas Hobbes was born on April 5, 1588 in the English town of Malmesbury (Gloucestershire) and despite the fact that this happened ahead of schedule (his mother was frightened by the news of the approaching Spanish Armada), he lived an unusually long and fruitful life.

Hobbes was raised by an uncle who had a significant fortune and received a decent education. By the age of fourteen he was fluent in Latin and Greek languages and was sent to Maudlin Hall, one of the colleges of Oxford University, where five years later he received his bachelor's degree. In 1608, Hobbes received a position as tutor in the family of William Cavendish, Earl of Devonshire. This was undoubtedly fortunate, since he had a first-class library at his disposal.

Accompanying the young Cavendish on his travels around Europe, he was able to visit France and Italy, which served as a strong incentive for the formation and development of his philosophical worldview.

His first trip in 1610 inspired him to study ancient authors, since in Europe Aristotelian philosophy, in the traditions of which he was brought up, was already considered outdated. This was strengthened by his conversations with Lord Chancellor Francis Bacon, which apparently took place between 1621 and 1626, when Bacon had already been dismissed and was busy writing treatises and various projects. scientific research. In his autobiography, written in Latin in 1672, he speaks of his studies in antiquity as the happiest period of his life. Its completion should be considered the translation of Thucydides' History, published partly to warn his compatriots about the dangers of democracy, for at that time Hobbes, like Thucydides, was on the side of the monarchical form of government.

During his second trip to continental Europe in 1628, Hobbes became passionate about geometry. He became convinced that geometry provided a method by which his views on social order could be presented in the form of irrefutable evidence. The ills of a society on the brink of civil war will be cured if people understand the rationale for rationality. government structure, presented in the form of clear and consistent theses, similar to the proofs of a geometer.

Hobbes's third journey through continental Europe (1634-1636) introduced another element into his system of natural and social philosophy. In Paris, he becomes a member of the Mersenne circle, which included R. Descartes, P. Gassendi, and gets acquainted with their philosophical ideas. In 1636, he visited G. Galileo in Italy, conversations with whom contributed to Hobbes’ development of his own philosophical system. There is an opinion that Galileo himself suggested that Hobbes extend the principles of the new natural philosophy to the sphere human activity. Hobbes's grand idea was to synthesize the ideas of mechanics for the geometric deduction of human behavior from the abstract principles of the new science of motion.

Hobbes gained fame as the author of philosophical treatises, however, his inclination towards philosophy manifested itself when he was already well over forty. According to Hobbes himself, his original contribution to philosophy was the optics he developed, as well as the theory of the state. In 1640, he distributed the treatise “The Elements of Law, Natural and Political”, in which he argued for the need for a single and indivisible sovereign power. This treatise was published later, in 1650, in two parts - “Human Nature” (Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie) and “On the Political Body” (De Corpore Politico, or the Elements of Law, Moral and Politic ).

The treatise “On Citizenship” (De cive) appeared shortly after this, in 1642. The English version of the work was published in 1651 under the title “Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Government and Society.” This book is the second most important in Hobbes's ideological legacy after the later Leviathan. In it he attempted to definitively define the proper tasks and boundaries of power, as well as the nature of the relationship between church and state.

Hobbes planned to write a philosophical trilogy that would provide an interpretation of the body, man and citizen. He began working on the treatise “On the Body” shortly after the publication of the treatise “On Citizenship”. The treatise “On Man” (De Homine) appeared in 1658.

He completed work on his masterpiece, the treatise Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil, in 1651. In it, he succinctly and sharply formulated his views on man and the state (leviathan - a sea monster described in the Book of Job). This work of Hobbes became the most significant and famous, reflecting his philosophical views quite fully.

Leviathan argues, on the one hand, that sovereigns are authorized to rule on behalf of their subjects, and not by God's will; on the other hand, Hobbes used social contract theory to argue that the logical outcome of a state based on social consent should be the absolute power of the sovereign. Therefore, his teaching could be used to justify any form of government, whichever prevailed at that time.

Leviathan is generally considered a political work. However, the author’s views regarding the nature of the state are preceded by theses about man as a natural being and a “machine”, and end with lengthy discussions about what “true religion” should be.

Hobbes believed that beneath the phenomena of social behavior lie fundamental reactions of attraction and aversion, which turn into the desire for power and the fear of death. People, driven by fear, united into a community, renouncing the right of unlimited self-assertion in favor of the sovereign and authorizing him to act on their behalf. If people, out of concern for their safety, agreed to such a “social contract,” then the power of the sovereign must be absolute; otherwise, torn apart by conflicting claims, they will always be in danger of the anarchy inherent in a non-contractual state of nature.

In legal theory, Hobbes is famous for his concept of law as the commandment of the sovereign, which was an important step in clarifying the difference between statutory law (then nascent) and common law. He well understood and justified the difference between the questions: “What is the law?” and “Is the law fair?”

In 1658, Hobbes published the second part of the trilogy - the treatise “On Man”. Then, for a long period of time, publications had to be stopped because a bill against atheism and blasphemy was discussed in parliament and a commission was created whose task was to study Leviathan on this subject. Hobbes was forbidden to publish essays on current topics, and he took up historical research. In 1668, Behemoth, or the Long Parliament, a history of the Civil War from the point of view of his philosophy of man and society, was completed. The work was published only after the death of the thinker, no earlier than 1692. Having read the Elements of the Common Law of England by F. Bacon, which was sent to him by his friend John Aubrey (1626-1697), Hobbes, at the age of 76, wrote the work “Dialogues between a philosopher and a student of common law” England" (Dialogues between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws of England), published posthumously in 1681.

Hobbes died at Hardwick Hall (Derbyshire) on December 4, 1679. An inscription was made on the tombstone that he was a just man and well known for his learning at home and abroad.

Major works

• A Short Tract on First Principles.
• “The Elements of Law, Natural and Political.”
• “On Citizenship” (De cive).
• “Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.”
• "The Questions Concerning Liberty, Necessity, and Chance"
• "About Man" (De Homine)
• “Behemoth, or the Long Parliament.”
• “Dialogues between a Philosopher and a Student of the Common Laws of England.”

Hobbes Thomas(1588-1679) - English materialist philosopher, ideologist of the big bourgeoisie. Reviewing the history of the development of materialism, Marx wrote in The Holy Family: “Hobbes is the taxonomist of Baconian materialism.” Following (see) Hobbes resolutely opposed feudal ideology both in the field of philosophy and in the field of socio-political issues. Hobbes categorically rejected the existence of any immaterial substances; all "Spirits" or "incorporeal substances" are products of the human imagination. From a materialist position, Hobbes opposed the idealistic doctrine, which argued that concepts have an objective existence and precede things. Criticizing the idealists, including the medieval scholastics, Hobbes declares: “These people seriously assert that, besides Peter and Ivan and all the other people who exist, existed or will exist in the world, there is something else, which we call “man.” , or “man in general.”

Hobbes strongly argues that the only real ones are material bodies that exist outside of man, and ideas and concepts are only their reflection in human consciousness. Hobbes reduces the basic properties of material bodies to extension. Only extension and magnitude are constant, inalienable properties of the body. All other properties of bodies are changeable. Hobbes did not reach the understanding that space and time are universal forms of existence of matter, and this is one of the shortcomings of his materialism. Hobbes defines space as “the imaginary image of a thing existing outside of us”; “...time does not exist in things in themselves outside of us, but only in the thinking of our mind.” At the same time, space and time are, according to Hobbes, ideas formed as a result of the influence of objectively existing bodies on us. Movement is also not, according to Hobbes, a universal form of existence of matter; it is only an accident, an insignificant property, although inherent on a par with the peace of matter itself.

Hobbes reduces all the variety of forms of motion of matter to mechanical motion; this leads Hobbes to deny the objectivity of the qualitative certainty of objects: light, sound, smell, taste, color, etc. Hobbes' materialism is mechanistic materialism. Comparing Hobbes with Bacon, Marx writes that in Bacon, matter “smiles with its poetic sensual luster upon the whole man,” while in Hobbes’s materialism “sensibility loses its bright colors and turns into the abstract sensuality of a geometer.” In the theory of knowledge, Hobbes is basically a sensualist, but he did not develop the principle of the origin of knowledge and ideas from the world of the senses.

In Leviathan, Hobbes presented his socio-political views from an idealistic position. Hobbes's views were formed under the influence of the first decisive victory of the bourgeoisie over the feudal aristocracy. The starting principle of his teaching is the statement that in the “state of nature,” that is, before joining into state organizations, “man is a wolf to man.” Hence the fierce struggle between people, the “war of all against all.” This state of human society cannot last long, because it excludes normal life. Developing the theory of the social contract, Hobbes argues that people create a state in order to maintain peace in society.

Hobbes gives the state the symbolic name Leviathan (an almighty biblical monster). Ideal shape Hobbes believes that the government is a monarchy; he categorically denies social freedoms and democracy. The power of the big bourgeoisie should, according to Hobbes, be unlimited. The positive thing about Hobbes' socio-political views is his criticism of theological dogmas about the state and its origin. But he imagined bourgeois society as the limit of development. Hobbes's main works: "On the Citizen" (1642), "Leviathan" (1651).

Thomas Hobbes. Born 5 April 1588 in Malmesbury, Wiltshire, Kingdom of England - died 4 December 1679 in Derbyshire. English materialist philosopher, one of the founders of the theory of social contract and the theory of state sovereignty. Known for ideas that have gained currency in disciplines such as ethics, theology, physics, geometry and history.

Born in Gloucestershire, into a family of not very well educated, hot-tempered parish priest, because of a quarrel with a neighboring vicar at the door of the temple, he lost his job. He was raised by a wealthy uncle. Knew well ancient literature and classical languages. At fifteen he entered Oxford University, graduating in 1608.

In 1608 he became tutor to William, eldest son of William Cavendish, Baron Hardwick (later first Earl of Devonshire). Until the end of his life he maintained close contact with his student, who became his patron. Thanks to him, he met Ben Jonson, Francis Bacon, Herbert Charbercy and other outstanding people. After the death in 1628 of William Cavendish (who inherited the title of Earl of Devonshire in 1626), Hobbes receives the position of mentor to the son of Sir Gervase Clifton, and then raises the son of his old patron, Cavendish, with whom he travels through Italy (where in 1636 he meets).

The formation of Hobbes's views was significantly influenced by Galileo Galilei, P. Gassendi, and I. Kepler.

Hobbes created the first complete system of mechanistic materialism, consistent with the nature and requirements of natural science of that time. In a polemic with Descartes, he rejected the existence of a special thinking substance, proving that a thinking thing is something material. For Hobbes, geometry and mechanics are ideal examples of scientific thinking in general. Nature appears to Hobbes as a collection of extended bodies that differ in size, shape, position and movement. Movement is understood as mechanistic - as displacement. Sensible qualities are considered by Hobbes not as properties of the things themselves, but as forms of their perception. Hobbes distinguished between extension, which is actually inherent in bodies, and space as an image created by the mind (“phantasma”); objectively real movement of bodies and time as a subjective image of movement. Hobbes distinguished two methods of knowledge: the logical deduction of rationalistic “mechanics” and the induction of empirical “physics”.

Hobbes is one of the founders of the “contractual” theory of the origin of the state.

Like most political thinkers after Bodin, Hobbes distinguishes only three forms of state: democracy, aristocracy and monarchy. He does not approve of democracy because, for example, “great wisdom is inaccessible to the mob” and in democracy parties arise, which leads to civil war. Aristocracy is better, but the more perfect it is, the less it resembles popular government and the more it approaches monarchy. Best form state - monarchy, it more than any other corresponds to the ideal of absolute and undivided power.

Hobbes views the state as the result of a contract between people, putting an end to the natural pre-state state of “war of all against all.” He adhered to the principle of the original equality of people. People were created by the Creator as equal physically and intellectually, they have equal opportunities and the same, unlimited “rights to everything,” and they also have free will. Individual citizens voluntarily limited their rights and freedom in favor of the state, whose task is to ensure peace and security. Hobbes does not claim that all states arose by contract. To achieve supreme power, in his opinion, there are two ways - physical force (conquest, subjugation) and voluntary agreement. The first type of state is called acquisition-based, and the second is establishment-based, or political state.

Hobbes adheres to the principle of legal positivism and extols the role of the state, which he recognizes as the absolute sovereign. On the question of the forms of the state, Hobbes' sympathies are on the side of the monarchy. Defending the need to subordinate the church to the state, he considered it necessary to preserve religion as an instrument of state power to curb the people.

Hobbes' ethics is based on the unchangeable sensory "nature of man." Hobbes considered the basis of morality to be “natural law” - the desire for self-preservation and satisfaction of needs. Hobbes's main and most fundamental natural law instructs every person to strive for peace while there is hope of achieving it. The second natural law provides that if other people consent, a person must renounce the right to things to the extent necessary in the interests of peace and self-defense. A short third follows from the second natural law: people must fulfill the agreements they make. Other natural laws ( total number 19) can, according to Hobbes, be summarized in one simple rule: “do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you.”

Virtues are conditioned by a reasonable understanding of what promotes and what hinders the achievement of good. Moral duty in its content coincides with civil responsibilities arising from the social contract.

Major works of Thomas Hobbes:

The Elements of Law, Natural and Political (1640)
Treatise on Human Nature (1650)
Philosophicall Rudiments concerning Government and Society (publication of an English translation from the Latin "De Cive") (1651)
Philosophical trilogy “Fundamentals of Philosophy”: “About the Body” (1655); “About Man” (1658); “About the Citizen” (1642)
“Leviathan, or Matter, the form and power of the state, ecclesiastical and civil” (1651, Russian translation - 1936)
Letters upon Liberty and Necessity (1654)
The Questions concerning Liberty, Necessity and Chance(1656)

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