He is rightfully considered one of the founders of German existentialism. Martin Heidegger (1889 — 1976).

There are two periods in the thinker’s work. The first period lasted from 1927 to the mid-30s. During these years, in addition to “Being and Time,” he wrote “Kant and the Problems of Metaphysics” (1929), “On the Essence of Foundation” (1929), “What is Metaphysics?” (1929). The second period of creativity begins in 1935 and continues until the end of his life. Significant works of the second period are “Introduction to Metaphysics” (1953), “Hölderlin and the Essence of Poetry” (1946), “On the Way to Language” (1959), “Nietzsche” (1961), etc.

In the first period, the philosopher tried to create an integral system representing the doctrine of being as the basis human existence. In the second period he turns to interpretation philosophical ideas, starting with the works of ancient authors: Anaximander, Aristotle, Plato and ending with outstanding cultural leaders of the New and Contemporary times: F. Hölderlin, F. Nietzsche, R. M. Rilke. During this period, the problem of language becomes for him main theme reflections.

M. Heidegger saw his task as a philosopher in substantiating in a new way the doctrine of the essence and meaning of being. To achieve this goal, he sought to find ways to increase the adequacy of conveying his thoughts through language. His efforts are aimed at conveying the subtlest shades of meaning through the maximum use of the content of philosophical terms.

M. Heidegger seeks to identify those fundamental attitudes of European thinking that gave rise to the undesirable state of the entire European civilization. The most important of these attitudes, according to the philosopher, suggested focusing on overcoming the mental culture that already dates back 300 years. It was she who led Europe into a dead end, and we must look for a way out of it, listening to the whispers of existence. Questions about whether humanity is going where it needs to go and whether it needs to go in the direction where it is moving worried many European thinkers. Heidegger, reflecting on them, goes further and asks: “Are we not the last of some historical achievement, which is now quickly approaching its end, where everything will be completed in some increasingly tedious order of uniformity.”

Heidegger in his philosophy does not set the task of saving the world. His goal as a thinker is more modest, it is to understand the world in which he has to live. He writes: “Philosophy seeks what is existing...”. And further: “It exists in the melody of correspondence, tuning into the voice of the Being of existence.”

Main focus in philosophy M. Heidegger is attached to the analysis of the meaning of the category of being, which he fills with a unique content. In his opinion, “being from the early beginnings of Western European thought to this day means the same thing as presence. From presence, presence, the present sounds. The latter, according to popular belief, forms a characteristic of time with the past and future. Being as presence is determined by time.” In other words, being for Heidegger is the existence of things in time, or existence.

The main point of understanding all things is, according to Heidegger, human existence. The thinker denotes the existence of man with the term “dasein”, breaking with the philosophical tradition in which this term means “ existence", "existence". In Heidegger, according to researchers of his work, “dasein” rather means the existence of consciousness. The founder of German existentialism emphasizes that only man knows about his mortality and only he knows the temporary nature of his existence. Thanks to this, he is able to realize his existence.

A person, entering the world and being present in it, experiences a state of care. It appears in the form of the unity of three moments: “being-in-the-world”, “running ahead” and “being-with-in-the-world-existence”. To be an existential being, Heidegger believed, means to be open to the knowledge of existence.

Considering “caring” as “running ahead,” the philosopher wants to emphasize the point of difference between human existence and any material existence that takes place in the world. Human existence constantly seems to “slip forward” and thus contains new possibilities that are recorded as a “project”. In other words, human existence is self-designing. The project of being realizes the awareness of the movement of human existence in time. This is the possibility of considering being as existing in history.

Understanding “care” as “being-with-in-the-world-existence” means a specific way of relating to things as human companions. The structure of care seems to unite the past, future and present. Moreover, Heidegger’s past appears as abandonment, the present as doom to be enslaved by things, and the future as a “project” influencing us. Depending on the priority of one of these elements, being can be authentic or inauthentic.

We deal with inauthentic being and the existence corresponding to it when the preponderance of the component of the present in the existence of things obscures his finitude from a person, that is, when being is completely absorbed by the objective and social environment. Inauthentic existence, according to Heidegger, cannot be eliminated by transforming the environment.

In conditions of inauthentic existence and philosophizing, a person “comes into a state of alienation.” Heidegger calls the inauthentic way of existence, in which a person is immersed in the world of things dictating his behavior, existence in “Men”, that is, in the impersonal “Nothing” that determines everyday human existence. A human being pushed into the Nothing, thanks to the openness of the Nothing, joins the elusive being, that is, gets the opportunity to comprehend the existing. Nothingness refers us to existence, being a condition for the possibility of revealing existence. Our curiosity in relation to Nothing gives rise to metaphysics, which for him ensures that the knowing subject goes beyond the limits of existence.

It should be noted that when Heidegger thinks about metaphysics, he interprets it in his own way, and this interpretation differs from the traditional understanding of metaphysics, which has often been considered as synonymous with philosophy in general or as synonymous with philosophy that ignores dialectics. In his opinion, all modern philosophy is a metaphysics of subjectivity. Moreover, this metaphysics represents genuine nihilism. The thinker believed that philosophy sets in motion metaphysics, but the latter is the roots of the tree of philosophy. Heidegger believed that in our era the old metaphysics, which became synonymous with nihilism, is completing its history. This is proven, in his opinion, by the transformation of philosophy into anthropology. Moreover, “having become anthropology, philosophy itself perishes from metaphysics.” Evidence of the completion of the old metaphysics, Heidegger believed, is the proclamation of the slogan “God is dead.” This slogan, put forward by F. Nietzsche, meant the rejection of religion and the recognition of the incapacity of faith in God, which was proof of the destruction of the previous foundations on which ideals rested and ideas about the goals of life were based. The disappearance of the authority of God and the church with their “teaching mission” means that the place of God “is replaced by the authority of conscience, the authority of reason rushing here... The flight from the world into the sphere of the sensory is replaced by historical progress. The otherworldly goal of eternal bliss is transformed into earthly happiness for the majority. Care of religious cult is replaced by the creation of culture or the spread of civilization. Creativity, what was previously a feature biblical God, notes now human activity. Human creativity is finally turning into business and gesheft.” After this, the stage of cultural decomposition begins. The sign of the New Age, which led to such a state, is nihilism. According to Heidegger, “nihilism” is the truth that has come to dominate that all the former goals of existence have been shaken. But with a change in the previous attitude towards leading values, nihilism reaches fullness and becomes a free and pure task of establishing new values.” A nihilistic attitude towards previous authorities and values ​​does not equate to stopping the development of human thought and culture.

Regarding Heidegger’s philosophy of history, we must take into account that, in his opinion, “the sequence of epochs contained in being is neither accidental nor can it be calculated as inevitable.” The Thinker believed that people cannot speed up the coming of the future, but they can see it, they just need to learn to ask and listen to existence. And then new world he will come unnoticed. This world will be guided, according to Heidegger, by “intuition,” that is, by the subordination of “all possible aspirations to the integral task of planning,” and subhumanity will become superhumanity.

In order for this to happen, it is necessary to go through long haul knowledge, misconceptions and errors. Understanding the nihilism that has afflicted the European consciousness can make its contribution to overcoming this path. According to M. Heidegger, “to comprehend “nihilism” does not mean... to carry “generalizing thoughts” about it in your head and, as observers, to evade the real. To comprehend “nihilism” means, on the contrary, to stand within that in which all actions and everything real of this era of Western history have their time and their space, their foundation and their underlying foundations, their paths and goals, their order and their legitimation, their security and insecurity—in a word, its “truth.” This is what philosophy does. But he can successfully follow the path of studying the world by listening to it only new philosophy, which should not be connected with the previous “ scientific philosophy”, nor with science. In the development of the latter, Heidegger sees an alarming symptom of the growth in the significance of calculative thinking and the fading of meaningful thinking. The identification of these two types of thinking in the work “Detachment” (1959) and their analysis form the basis of M. Heidegger’s theory of knowledge of social phenomena. In his opinion, calculating or calculative thinking plans and explores; it calculates possibilities without analyzing the consequences of their implementation. This type of thinking is empirical and incapable of “thinking about the meaning that reigns in everything that is.” As for meaningful thinking, in its extremes it is divorced from reality. But with special training and exercises, meaningful thinking is able to avoid this extreme and achieve the truth of being. This, according to Heidegger, is possible through phenomenology, which acts as “interpretive knowledge,” or hermeneutics.

In covering the issues of comprehending being and establishing truth, discussed in the work “On the Essence of Truth,” M. Heidegger proceeded from the fact that ordinary human reason, thanks to thinking, acts as a means of movement towards truth. But what is true? According to Heidegger, “the true is the real.” The philosopher writes: “We call not only existing things true, but first of all we call our statements about existing things true or false.”

How does it become possible to achieve the truth and avoid the untrue? To achieve this, we must “put ourselves at the disposal of connecting rules,” especially since no matter how we try to think, we think in the field of tradition.”

Truth, being, according to Heidegger, something timeless and eternal, not based on the transience and doom of people, is acquired by a person through free entry into the sphere of discovery of existence. Freedom is thought of “as the assumption of the existence of beings.” To achieve truth, freedom is a necessary condition. If there is no freedom, then there is no truth for the subject, either as a subject of search, or as a value in the form of an object of implementation in practice. Freedom in knowledge is the freedom of search and wandering. The latter are the source of delusions, but it is human nature to overcome delusions and discover the meaning of existence.

According to Heidegger, domination in conditions of inauthentic existence of calculus methods in science leads to the fact that its application in the practice of organizing the objective world turns it, thanks to technology, into an education dominating people. In this case, technology becomes the only force that determines the ways of revealing the world.

From Heidegger's statements, however, it does not at all follow that we must abandon the new possibilities opened up by technology. After all, a person in the world of technology opens up to mystery. This new ability of man, associated with detachment from things, promises “us a new foundation and ground for rooting on which we can stand and survive in the world of technology, no longer fearing it.” People are only required to “think more urgently, that is, mentally going forward, to recognize what is being called into question and becoming doubtful.”

And yet, human knowledge only convinces that the place of the former world “is now being occupied more hastily, more unceremoniously and more comprehensively by the objectivity of technical possession of the earth, domination over the earth.” In these new conditions of life, “both the humanity of a person and the thinginess of a thing - everything, as composition makes its way, diverges and dissolves in the calculated market value recognized by the market, which, being global, not only entangles the entire earth, but also, being will to will, he arranges trades within the existential essence of being.” This is the philosopher’s disappointing assessment of current life.

In the works of M. Heidegger as the greatest thinker of the 20th century. contains thoughtful characteristics of the processes of European life. Many of these processes bothered him. The philosopher sees one of the phenomena that worries him in alienation, which he believed was becoming global. This is manifested in the fact that many of those people who moved to cities from rural areas became strangers to their homeland, but those who remained in their homeland among the fields and forests are also “rootless”, like those who left it or was expelled. Characteristic feature modern life, according to the philosopher, is the loss of people’s “rootedness” in life.

The development of society, according to Heidegger, is carried out in such a way that it moves towards a dangerous point, and only God can save it on this path. Important attention in the philosophy of M. Heidegger is paid to the problem of humanism. The statement of the founder of German existentialism on this issue is distinguished by its conceptual originality and contains the potential for new approaches to understanding humanism.

The peculiarity of Heidegger’s understanding of humanism, reflected in a concentrated form in the work “Letter on Humanism,” is that, unlike numerous researchers of this phenomenon, the philosopher attributed its emergence not to the Renaissance, but to the time of Ancient Rome during the republican period.

Another distinctive feature of Heidegger’s understanding of humanism is that the thinker put forward the idea of ​​a plurality of humanisms. Depending on the ideological constructs implemented in the concepts of humanism, he considered it legitimate to distinguish different versions of humanism. At the same time, he proceeded from the consideration that humanism is a kind of concern that people do not lose their humanity and dignity on the path to freedom.

Maintaining humanism, according to Heidegger, requires strengthening mutual understanding between peoples. The philosopher considered actions aimed at strengthening ties and mutual understanding between Western European peoples as a condition for the salvation of the West.

In general, M. Heidegger’s ideas represent an attempt to overcome the shortcomings of the old philosophy and find ways to solve the problems of human survival.

Heidegger and Eastern philosophy: the search for the complementarity of cultures Korneev Mikhail Yakovlevich

§5. Existential-historical thinking of the “late” Heidegger

The following works of Heidegger that we are considering in connection with our topic are associated with some change in the problematics of Heidegger’s philosophy that occurred at the turn of the 30s, which is usually called a “turn” in his work. Heidegger himself argued that there is no difference between his philosophy before the “turn” and after. This is indicated, for example, by O. Nikiforov in the article “Heidegger at the “turn”: “Basic concepts of metaphysics” (1929/30).” In the same article, Nikiforov O. lists Heidegger’s works, in which, in fact, the “turn” occurred, which is crucial for changing Heidegger’s thought; so, this is “On the Essence of Foundation” (1929), speech “What is metaphysics?” (1929), course of lectures “Basic concepts of metaphysics” (1929/30), “On the essence of truth” (1930). The subject matter changed, but the main thought, the main idea, the main “metaphor” remained unchanged. Heidegger always, in all periods of his work, tries to think about being; he does not abandon his plan, which fills the treatise “Being and Time.” In lectures on "Metaphysics" German idealism"(1941) we read: “... it is not said that “Being and Time” has become something of the past for me. Today I haven’t “moved on” yet, that’s because I know more and more clearly that I can’t go “further” – but perhaps I will get closer to what I was trying to do.” So, both before and after the “turn,” Heidegger’s philosophy remains thinking about being. But how then are these periods of Heidegger’s work different? After the turn, Heidegger tries to cleanse the thinking of being from the “anthropological edition” with which Being and Time was burdened. Consequently, after the “turn,” Heidegger tries to think of being not from temporality, focusing on the future, but by comprehending being as an event, i.e. trying to think through being without existence. Now in Heidegger’s philosophy the theme of language, which is problematized as the “house of being,” begins to sound more and more clearly. Let us dwell in more detail on the works “What is metaphysics?” and “Letter on Humanism.”

Lecture “What is metaphysics?” was read by Heidegger in 1929 upon taking up his position as professor of philosophy at the University of Freiburg, it is one of Heidegger's popular works. This lecture is considered by many researchers to be one of the important components of Heidegger's philosophy.

According to Heidegger, a metaphysical question differs from any other in that, firstly, it captures, i.e. questions the questioner himself, and secondly, he goes beyond the limits of existence as a whole, which is precisely the main movement of metaphysics, understood as ta meta ta physika, i.e. elevation above being as such. So, the question of what metaphysics is, put in the title of the lecture, turns into Heidegger’s question: what is nothingness. This is a question about which “science wants to know nothing.” It should be noted that when talking about Nothing, Heidegger introduces a new term - das Nichts - substantivized Nothing, which Heidegger writes with a capital letter, in contrast to the adverb nichts, which is used in the sense of nothing, not a single thing, not a single thing. We owe this observation to Chr. Iberu.

Important for our research is the following conclusion of Heidegger, that Nothing can be the subject of thought, but nevertheless, Nothing is accessible to a person, he knows about Nothing, because people often, albeit thoughtlessly, talk about it. Heidegger speaks of Nothing as something familiar to man. Heidegger argues here in a manner quite different from philosophical tradition understanding of Nothing. Parmenides, the founder of the understanding of being in European philosophy, laid down an ontological line, as a result of which it was believed that there is no non-existent, non-existence, in contrast to being, which alone can be conceivable. And it is precisely at this point that Heidegger corresponds to the Parmenidean line with his assertion that non-being cannot be the object of thought, that it is in no way given to thought. But in general, Heidegger contradicts the Parmenidean attitude towards negativity, according to which there is no non-existence, it does not play any role in human life. In a sense, Plato reconsiders Parmenides’ attitude to negativity when, in the dialogue “The Sophist,” he admits that the problem of sophistry, as thinking about something incorrect, deceptive, i.e. about non-being, is undecidable. Sophistry is thinking about non-being, which somehow still exists. So, the European metaphysical tradition, from Parmenides to Hegel, considers the problem of Nothingness (negativity) within the rational sphere. The negative is analyzed on the basis of existence, is understood as a lack of existence and means untrue, false, deceptive, impermanent. This is precisely why Heidegger believes that tradition has not yet thought through the Nothing, has not yet reached the Nothing. Heidegger believes that Parmenides is right in relation to Plato, i.e. in the sense that Nothing can be the subject of thought. Nothing should be reduced to the existent, should not be considered as its shortcoming, it is something fundamentally different from the existent.

To obtain a definition of Nothing, Heidegger introduces the concept of “the totality of existence” or “all that exists as a whole.” But we can never grasp all that exists in its unconditional totality; we always deal with this or that, we are attached to some specific existent, and may not be aware of a number of others. The human relationship to existence is fundamentally split, but still Heidegger insists that we can relate not to thought, but in a slightly different way to all that exists as a whole, “that we still often see ourselves standing in the midst of a somehow revealed totality of existence.” In what cases does this happen? This happens in those moments when we are captured by some fundamental mood, for example. when we feel sad. Deep melancholy reveals existence as a whole.

Heidegger’s logic is as follows: there are moods that reveal to us “everything” or existence as a whole (this is deep melancholy, joy from the presence of a loved one, etc.), therefore, there are moods that reveal Nothing to us. Heidegger has already found out that Nothing can be given only in something opposite to thinking, i.e. outside the rational sphere.

This mood turns out to be the radical mood of “fear”.

O. Poggeler notes that the German word fear (die Angst) is etymologically related to the word angustiae, which means crowdedness. In fear, a person experiences a feeling of tightness. he has no way out, the whole world disappears and he, afraid, finds himself in the middle of Nothing, which presses him with its terrifying approach. All in fear the world and everything in the world suddenly seems devoid of its meaning, empty, we are drowning in indifference to things that have lost their meaning, and the world seems to collapse due to its worthlessness. The “I” so familiar to us, formed by everyday worries and troubles, disappears from the scene. In fear, the collapse of everything around us is revealed, all things slip away, the earth disappears from under our feet. Fear and the threat of fear come from everywhere and it is impossible to establish the localization of fear. We get scared. We become open to horror (die Unheimlichkeit), deprivation of shelter, any help, protection, a feeling of homelessness, insecurity. This experience of groundlessness, of suspension, transforms a person into pure here-being, into pure presence. Since all the realities of the world have disappeared, the world as such has become closer, as if purified with the disappearance of objects and realities that usually mask it. In a mood of horror it is impossible to speak - but only to remain silent, and intersubjectivity is impossible. Thus, fear reveals to us that we are immersed in existence, abandoned in it without protection and help, to exist even without an explicit desire to do so. Fear arises from our situation and reveals it to us. It is the true sense of the original situation of being-in-the-world.

But the mood of fear is not a way to comprehend Nothing. In fear, Nothing appears simultaneously with the entire totality of existence, with all existence as a whole, which escapes. In a mood of fear, things slip away, move away from us, become indifferent to us, but at the same time they turn towards us, and we are already dealing with existence as such. The ambiguity of fear (horror) is due to the fact that it simultaneously shows both existence and Nothingness, i.e. Nothingness is within existence. Nothing sends away from itself, it refers to the sinking, slipping existence. Nothing destroys or denies being; it annihilates itself, says Heidegger, but does not do this to being. Existing “in the bright night of terrifying Nothingness” appears as completely different from Nothingness, as being as such. Thus, it is obvious that fear contains a breakthrough into a new, more fundamental understanding of existence. Heidegger’s question in the lecture “What is metaphysics?”: Why is there something and not Nothing? remains unanswered. Heidegger no longer answers it like Leibniz, that being is better than non-being. The basis of being turns out to be groundless, or more precisely, it is no longer possible to indicate any basis - Nothing turns out to be in the very core of existence. Being remains open, and we do not know what existence has in store for us.

So, being, in contrast to existence, becomes accessible through Nothing. The difference between being and existence is of great importance in Heidegger’s concept, which is also noticeable in his concept of Nothing. Being, like Nothing, unlike existence, is not a subject of science; it cannot be made an object of logical research, i.e. any thinking, according to Heidegger, is objective thinking, i.e. the thinking of existence.

Heidegger writes: “It is only on the basis of the primordial appearance of Nothing that human presence is able to approach beings and penetrate into them. And since our presence, by its very essence, consists in a relation to being, which it is not and which it itself is, as such a presence it always comes from the previously revealed Nothing.” From here follows Heidegger’s famous definition of existence, human existence as protrusion into Nothingness. Human existence is pushed into the Nothing, it goes beyond the limits of its existence, it transcends. The connection between existence and transcendence is a common place in many concepts of existential philosophy. But in Heidegger, transcendence is not endowed with the features of something positive (for example, God); transcendence is understood by Heidegger as going beyond the limits of being, beyond the limits of everything that exists as a whole, and as such is an essential characteristic of Dasein.

But the prominence of man into Nothing means precisely the ontological property of man. This does not mean “nihilism” in moral, ethical and religious terms, which Heidegger will talk about later. Heidegger’s definition of existence as standing in being and, at the same time, in Nothing is not nihilistic, but humanistic, which he reveals in his work “Letter on Humanism.”

This work arose in developing an answer to the French philosopher Jean Beaufré's question about the meaning of the term "humanism". Interest in this term was caused by a brochure by Sartre J.P. that appeared in Paris. “Existentialism is Humanism,” in which Sartre, in a dispute with Marxists, presents existentialism as genuine humanism. The text of the Letter was compiled by Heidegger in 1946 and published along with Plato's Doctrine of Truth in 1947. On the same topic, at the initiative of J. Beaufret, Heidegger participated in colloquiums in France in 1955.

To the question of Jean Beaufret: “How to give the word humanism a new meaning?” Heidegger responds with a question, asking whether it is necessary to do this and thus opens a discussion about how to think about the human being. But our goal is not to present the key points of this discussion, although this sometimes cannot be avoided, but to clarify the term “existence”, which is used here by Heidegger in contrast to the existentialist, namely Sartrean concept, which, according to Heidegger, is mired in metaphysics.

Heidegger’s question “Is this necessary?”, with which he answers Beaufret’s question about humanism, should not be understood to mean that Heidegger is indifferent to the question of the essence of man. Heidegger questions the attempt to define a person based on humanism, which is “thought and concern about how a person would become human, and not inhuman, “inhumane,” i.e. fallen from their essence." Heidegger dates the birth of humanism from Rome, where humanism is understood as the cultivation of humanity, in one way or another directed to the Greek world, to antiquity and contrasted with the barbarism of the Gothic.

Humanism is metaphysical, and this means: it does not ask about the relationship of being to the human being, does not understand and does not know this question. Heidegger is confident that in order to break “this vicious metaphysical circle,” one should, in the midst of the dominance of metaphysics, ask the question “What is metaphysics?” and even introduce at first the question of being as metaphysical (this is how, for example, the question of Nothing was introduced in the lecture “What is metaphysics?”). Metaphysical humanism believes that rationality, embedded in the goal-setting mechanism, is the true essence of man; this opinion is based on the metaphysical interpretation of man as animal rationale. But, according to Heidegger, the essence of man does not rest in reason, personality, soul, body - “man belongs to his being only insofar as he hears the demand of Being.” Heidegger denotes such an opportunity to hear being for a person, a person’s accessibility to being, standing in the clearing of being with the term “ek-sistence”, comprehending the essence of man as follows: “What a person is... rests in his ek-sistence. Existence so understood, however, is not identical traditional concept existentia, meaning reality as distinct from essentia as possibility."

The main feature that makes up the so-understood ek-sistence is ecstatic emergence into the truth of being. The difference between other living beings and man is based on it - man emerges from his being as such into the truth of being and by standing in it preserves the essence of being.

Sartre's position that existence precedes essence, expressed by him in the work “Existentialism is Humanism,” according to Heidegger, is metaphysical, despite the fact that Sartre wraps up the traditional medieval thesis. And in this sense, Heidegger believes, Sartre’s thesis has nothing in common with what was said in the treatise “Being and Time,” for example, in this way: “The substance of man is existence.” Heidegger reduces the Latin term “substance” to Greek word ousia and understands it as “the abiding of the abiding and at the same time the abiding itself.” This thesis from “Being and Time,” subjected to phenomenological destruction, sounds like this: “the way in which a person in his true being remains in being is an ecstatic standing in the truth of being” Heidegger M. Letter on Humanism // Heidegger M. Time and Being . M., 1993. S. 201]. This definition, which Heidegger calls essential, does not reject the humanistic definitions of man as animal rationale, personality, mental-spiritual-physical being, which, according to Heidegger’s thought, do not yet achieve the actual dignity of man, and in this sense Heidegger’s thought (namely “Being” and time”) is opposed to humanism. “The idea goes against humanism because it does not place humanitas high enough.” Heidegger evaluates Sartre’s attribution of Heidegger’s philosophy to the atheistic direction of existentialism as a rash, erroneous statement, noting that thought oriented towards the truth of being can be neither theistic nor atheistic.

Thus, Heidegger comes to the conclusion that “when defining human humanity as ek-existence, it is not man who is essential, but being as the ecstatic dimension of ek-existence.” Entering into the clearing of being and preserving the truth of being - this is what a person is called to in his passivity in relation to Being. Heidegger repeatedly emphasizes that man is not a ruler, but a shepherd of being. And this attitude of man in relation to being is predetermined by being itself. But sometimes it happens that a person forgets the truth of being under the pressure of existence - this situation is described by Heidegger in “Being and Time” as “fall”. And only poets and thinkers sometimes give the floor to the truth of existence in their speech. In his Letter on Humanism, Heidegger points to Heraclitus and Hölderlin as such. For these reasons, the thought of the truth of being is not systematic, but historical, just as human existence is historical. It turns out that Heidegger develops a humanism of a “strange kind”, which thinks of man from his proximity to being, which comprehends the human being as completely dependent on the truth of being with its history. This gives Heidegger a reason to note that the thought he developed is neither existentialism nor humanism, although Heidegger here uses the term “existence,” defining it as “Ecstatic dwelling near being. It (i.e. existence - O.S.) is shepherding, guarding, caring for being.” But to think about being means to think about the humanity of man, because he is in the service of being, “the shepherd of being,” “the neighbor of being”; and in this sense, Heidegger’s thought turns out to be highly humanistic, more than all the indicated types of humanism.

So, Heidegger tries to think about being without relying on either metaphysics or mythology. And Heidegger makes this attempt in stages. If in “Being and Time” there is still a persistent presence of subjectivism in the very formulation of the question, then in the works after the “turn” Heidegger implements a consistent position of overcoming the transcendental horizon in the question of being. In works dating to this period, Heidegger identifies standing in the open as a prerequisite for any speaking and judgment about being (in the report “On the Essence of Truth”). This same question was further developed in the article “Source artistic creation“, where it is already articulated as a question about the “yawning middle.” Here, in the “Letter on Humanism”, this issue is discussed in connection with the definition of the essence of man. Man is shown by Heidegger in this work as a being who is given the ability to stand in the lumen of being, to stand in it, and, moreover, even to preserve the glow. Based on this, ek-existence is explained as a place in which the truth of being is arranged, as standing in the clearing. Based on this, we can conclude that Heidegger’s philosophy is not existentialism, no matter how much Sartre wanted it. This is pointed out by Heidegger himself and many researchers, the opinion of one of whom is appropriate to cite here. We are talking about a book by Peter Kardorff, which attracts with its originality of presentation and style. Cardorff believes that Heidegger is neither an existentialist nor a mystic, contrary to many popular opinions about him, although he sometimes calls Heidegger’s philosophy a “gesture of the saint,” and calls Heidegger himself a “patheticist of mysticism.”

The period of existential-historical thinking in Heideger’s philosophy is not limited to the works we have touched upon. The “late” Heidegger’s thinking about the truth of being continues further, after writing these works - in “The Source of Artistic Creation”, in “The Question of Technology”, in the article “On the Essence of Truth” and other works where Heidegger tries to think of the truth of being as “ event".

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Martin Heidegger - philosopher on a forest path
(on the 120th anniversary of his birth)

The essay is dedicated to the 120th anniversary of the birth of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976). The essay attempts a hermeneutic reconstruction of M. Heidegger's “topological map of thought” or “metaphysics of landscape” based on the multifaceted concept of Holzweg, the forest path. For interpretation, the poetic testimony of E. Junger and P. Celan is used.

Keywords: metaphysics of landscape, hermeneutic philosophy, M. Heidegger, E. Junger, P. Celan.

“Paths are not works,” wrote Martin Heidegger in the preface to his complete works, giving the reader an important indication of the nature of his thought. “Wegmarken” (“Way Signs”), “Unterwegs zur Sprache” (“On the Way to Language”), “Holzwege” (“Forest Paths”) - these are the titles of perhaps the most famous collections of articles and speeches by Heidegger, with which he entered the intellectual space of the new Germany and Europe after 1945. In all the names one can hear one word - “path” or, more precisely, “paths”...

In the era of industrialization and mass society, the total dominance of technology and nihilism, in a word, “postavka” (Gestell), Heidegger managed to find place, from where it opened world- not “other”, “better” or “more secluded”, but the world as a single “quaternary” (Geviert) of heaven and earth, mortal and divine. A world that is not presented to the subject as an object, is not accessible to the authoritative gesture of the manager and is not entangled in transport and communication networks; it silently responds to meaningful thinking (Besinnung), reveals itself in the poetic word (Dichtung) and nourishes the person rooted and living in it. Being and the meaning of being - philosophical words to indicate openness of the world. The world is not an abstract space-container where things are piled up senselessly. The world - white light, space, where there is near and far - for the first time allows things to be what they are, expands the space for things and events.

Greek word topos, according to Heidegger, best captured this sense of the spatial, according to which place belongs to the thing. Man lives in the world, making his way through space, through things-topoi. He listens to things, and things respond to him. He goes around things and protects them.

The path connects earth with heaven, gods with mortals. Actually thinking means take a step from representing subject-object thinking into another thinking, “obedient to the being of the world.” To actually think means to be a way; mastering space, being where everything is in its place.

So, it is no coincidence that Heidegger understands thinking in the image of a path. And it is no coincidence that the path is connected with the landscape along which the traveler walks, and with the place where he “builds, lives, thinks.” Indeed, a meeting with Heidegger’s philosophy, with “thinking about being” is an experience that in many people causes a natural guess about the topographical patterns of thought hidden in his texts. So what is the topology and topography of Heidegger's thought?

The topographical map of Heidegger's thought, hidden in the philosopher's text, corresponds to a forest landscape, more precisely, to the Black Forest terrain. The philosopher himself speaks about it in a short essay “Creative Landscape: Why We Remain in the Province”:

“On the steep slope of a wide alpine valley in the southern Black Forest, at an altitude of 1150 meters above sea level, stands a hut - a small ski lodge. Its area is 6 by 7 square meters. The roof falls low over three rooms - a kitchen, a bedroom and a cell-office. Peasant farmsteads with huge roofs hanging low over them are scattered along the narrow valley bottom and along exactly the same steep mountain slopes. Meadows and pastures stretch up the slope all the way to the forest with its tall, dark, old spruce trees. And above all this stands the clear summer sky, into the shining expanses of which two hawks soar in wide circles.

This is my world - the world in which I work, if you look at it with the contemplative gaze of a guest and vacationer. I, in fact, never examine this landscape. I comprehend him in the experience of life: hourly, day and night, he swims in the great waves of the seasons. The heaviness of the mountains, the strength of their primeval rocks, the thoughtful growth of fir trees, the light, artless luxury of flowering mountain meadows, the sound of a stream running over the stones on an endless autumn night, the harsh simplicity of the snow-covered plains - all this crowds and hurries one another, leading its note through the everyday life of existence there , above, on the mountains.

And all this, again, not in particularly selected moments of conscious concentration, deliberate empathy, but only when one’s own existence is inside one’s work, in it. Only work opens up the expanses into which the reality of these mountains will enter. The series of works is completely immersed in the landscape, in its ongoing existence.

When, in the darkness of a winter night, a snow storm with its fierce gusts of wind rages around the hut, when a shroud of snow covers everything around, hiding everything from view, then the time comes for philosophy to triumph. That's when she must ask simply and essentially. Every thought must be processed sternly and clearly. Then the work of thought is imprinted in the language - just like spruce trees, standing tall, resist the storm.”

This landscape, of course, is not an object of aesthetic contemplation. Heidegger describes world, in which he retired, and at the same time - the elements your thoughts. The word “element” is not used here by chance. The element indicates the primary elements, matter, nature. Something that thought ultimately rests on, being unable to cope with it, spiritualize it, bring it to light, sketch out its grid of coordinates, in order to ultimately subjugate it. The element indicates something unthinkable in thought, not isolated, not separated, hidden. Man lives in the world, lives on earth. And the earth imperiously invades his being. Moreover, it gives man a place in the world for the first time. One might say that it is not indifferent to the earth where the world of human historical existence unfolds. The “power of the earth,” therefore, consists in the fact that the world can become a “homeland.” One of Heidegger’s main questions in connection with the phenomenon of the world remained until the end the question: can the world, and if so, how, become “native” (heimatlich) for a person?

Existence in the world and on earth determines the character of Dasein, human “being-in-the-world.” The relationship between the world and the earth does not form a clear coordinate system, but represents a historically changing relationship. “The earth, for the people in their historical accomplishment, their land” is defined in “The Source of Artistic Creation” (1936) as “the closing soil-foundation on which this people is based and rests...”. The world is an “openness” into which the “heaving” earth unfolds and penetrates.

The earth is that concealing, self-closing foundation on which alone the world can “rest.” The earth strives outward, growing forests, mushrooms, flowers and herbs, the roots of which go into the soil. The world, while providing space for creative work, poiesis, also needs soil on which diversity of forms can flourish for the first time. But the relationship between the world and the earth is twofold. They penetrate each other, and at the same time they are opposite, forming a “dispute”. The dispute between “opening” and “shuttering,” the game of appearance and concealment, waste and storage, is a sure sign of the “truth of being.” Therefore, according to Heidegger, the loss of the meaning of the phenomenon of the earth in the era of modern total technology means nothing more than the separation of the world from the nourishing basis of the earth, the destruction of the earth, to which the latter responds with silence.

Why is this “seclusion” (Bergung) of the earth so important for humans? It is well known that Heidegger reads truth (Greek: aletheia) as “unconcealment.” However, at the same time, truth is interpreted as Lichtung - enlightenment In the woods. Thus, the philosopher says: everything that shows itself, and to the extent that it shows itself, hides itself. "Concealment" turns out to be an integral part of the "accomplishment of truth." If we, in the horizon of our “being-in-the-world,” strive to explain, to sort all things into shelves, we turn “openness” into totality and forget that, in the words of Heraclitus, “nature loves to hide.” By turning things into objects, and the world into a quantifiable quantity, we deprive them of their primordial connection with the dark, deaf foundation of the earth. Possible and feasible for Dasein, “concealment” consists only in reproducing the “dispute between the earth and the world,” because “concealment” exists only where the earth and the world penetrate each other. Technology is destroying the earth. But art and, above all, poetry are still capable of preserving the truth of existence.

So, the Black Forest and, more broadly, german forest- the place where Heidegger’s philosophizing originates. If the landscape is the seat of being, then it is worth making an effort and trying to enter into “thinking about being” from this pre-conceptual side. First of all, let’s try to independently reproduce that bodily-phenomenological experience of the forest, which is built into Heidegger’s text and, in turn, gives us a valuable hermeneutic key to his thought.

The forest is inseparable from the mountain range - it grows upward in every sense. The forest can be seen for a hundred to two hundred steps - without a strong windbreak or dead wood. At a leisurely pace, the traveler walks up the road; with each turn it becomes more and more difficult to walk. He stops to rest and looks around: the gap reveals meadows and orderly rows of fir trees on the neighboring peaks. The forest embraces all the mountains, parting only far below on the plain. Then the road makes a turn (Kehre). Rounding the peak, the traveler after some time sees the place that he recently passed. The slope goes down, and after each new turn you can see the section of the path that has been passed and lies below your feet. And suddenly the road suddenly ends right in the middle of the forest. Here, from the moss-covered land, springs gush out, forming mountain streams and feeding the fertile soils with moisture... This is forest path(Holzweg), laid by foresters for their needs. Further - no traces of a person, no beaten path, no identifying marks.

Here suddenly something that did not catch the eye at first is revealed: “the pensive growth of the fir trees...” Order grows out of elemental force, is based on the undivided, the unthinkable, which only strives for order. This is the forest as nourishing soil, earth, the basis of wealth and property - what the Greeks, the founders of philosophy, called the word hyle, later translated into Latin as materies. This was important for Heidegger because German was perceived by him as nothing more or less than a substitute for the Greek logos in the modern era.

In the preface to the collection Holzwege (1950), which included such important works as “The Origin of Artistic Creation” and “The Time of the World Picture,” Heidegger interpreted the meaning of the word. "Holzwege" are forest paths "overgrown with grass and ending suddenly in an untrodden place." “Untrodden” is an area of ​​untouched, unthought-out, but not in the sense of “not yet.” It eludes a person accustomed to measured space and time.

Heidegger liked to invite his guests, who came to his hut in Todtnauberg, for a walk through the forest to a place with the poetic name of Stübenwasen. The forest paths branching off from the main road, known to woodcutters and foresters, were also known to the philosopher.

Among the guests were scientists, philosophers and poets - Ernst and Friedrich Georg Jünger, Paul Celan, Karl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Let's read three poetic testimonies in which the world is revealed and the closed-closed earth is preserved.

1. First, a quatrain from the poem “Wandering” (“Die Irre”) by Friedrich Georg Jünger:

Ich verirrte mich im weiten Walde,

Fand den Weg nicht, der ins Freie fuhrte,

Ging den Holzweg, der im Holze endet,

Ging im Kreise durch die Waldreviere.

On a forest path there is a risk of getting lost, and the traveler loses himself in order to find himself. Thought, based on the experience of a forest path, appears not as an “arrow of knowledge”, not as an unraveling of a ball of threads that leads to the light, into an open area, but as a meandering through the forest. The usual line suddenly turns into a circle. Holzweg, says the poet, ends in the forest (im Holze), literally: in a tree or wood. There are no more dirt roads or signs, everything is left to its own devices. The traveler finds himself in the wealth of the undivided, not isolated, at the origins of abundance. But only here does he have a chance to recognize his own, to hear his own language.

2. And here is how Ernst Jünger conveys his feelings from his meeting with Heidegger in the fall of 1948:

“...My first personal meeting with the philosopher took place in the mountains, in the Black Forest near Todtnauberg. Already at the first glance, I felt something that was not only stronger than words and thoughts, but also stronger than personality. Simple as a peasant, but a fabulous peasant who can transform at will. “Treasures in the gloomy spruce thicket.” There was something in him about a hunter who sets traps in the forest.

He was a knower - a man to whom knowledge brings not only wealth, but also joy, as Nietzsche demands from science. In his wealth he was unapproachable (unangreifbar) and even elusive (ungreifbar) - if a bailiff suddenly appeared to describe his latest dress. What was one sly glance from the outside worth, Aristophanes would have liked it too!”

The philosopher feels at home in the forest element (in the essay “Across the Line” Jünger calls it Wildnis, “wasteland” in the sense of an uncultivated place) as confident as a peasant or a hunter who sets traps. Being rooted in the forest has a stronger effect than words and thoughts, where there is already structure, order, and individuality. The forest is, again, land that has not yet been marked out, not ordered by man. Freedom lives in the forest: the inhabitants of the forest are cheerful, independent, cunning, sovereign, because they always have the opportunity to go to the mountains, to escape from bailiff, a tax collector and, ultimately, from Leviathan.

In the last sentence of the quotation, a subtle hint is made (through the figure of Aristophanes) to the famous Greek cunning and dexterity, the sophia of the Greeks, the founders of philosophy. I remember that Democritus was imbued with the deepest respect for the future sophist Protagoras, having once seen how skillfully he stacked a bundle of brushwood, from which Democritus concluded that Protagoras was capable of the most complex sciences...

But here's another quote from Jünger:

“Martin Heidegger’s homeland is Germany with its language; Heidegger's homeland is the forest. There he feels at home - untrodden, on forest paths. His brother is a tree.

When Heidegger immerses himself in language, he does more than - as Nietzsche would say - is required "among us philosophers." Heidegger's exegesis is more than philology, more than etymology: he grasps the word where it is still fresh, in full force. It sleeps in the embryo of silence in order to rise mightily from the rich forest humus..."

It seems that in these words the author seems to be giving a detailed commentary on Heidegger’s famous aphorism “Language is the house of being.” The tongue, like a seed, grows from the soil and unfolds in free growth, without needing either nutrients or moisture. The house of being is in the forest and is built of wood, matter, hyle.

3. To top it off, there is one more - perhaps the most famous - poetic approximation to Heidegger, belonging to Paul Celan. The poem “Todtnauberg”, written after a visit to the hut in the summer of 1967. Let us quote it in its entirety.

Arnika, Augentrost, der

Trunk aus dem Brunnen mit dem

Sternwurfel drauf,

– wessen Namen nahms auf

vor dem meinen? –,

die in dies Buch

geschriebenen Zeile von einer Hoffnung, heute

auf eines Denkenden

Waldwasen, uneingeebnet,

Orchis und Orchis, einzeln,

Krudes, spater, im Fahren,

der uns fahrt, der Mensch

der's mit anhort,

die halbbeschrittenen

Arnica, eyebright,

from the well, on top of the star from -

tagged, get drunk,

under the roof

where in the book -

whose name is it

in her before mine? –

in that book

about hope

today in my heart

on the thinker

what's coming

bald spots in the forest, bumps, rust,

orchis and orchis separately,

vagueness, on the road after,

is clear

he who is taking us,

agrees with the same

chiseled, forest

fallen paths in the swamps

(translated by M. Belorusets)

After reading the poem sent by mail, Heidegger wrote to Celan on January 30, 1968: “The word of the poet, pronouncing “Todtnauberg,” naming the place and landscape where someone’s thinking tried to take a step back into the insignificant (? - A.M.), - this word of the poet is both encouragement and a warning call, it preserves the memory of one diversely inclined (? - A.M.) day in the Black Forest...".

Details about Celan's expectations and experiences during and after this meeting can be found in the biography of Rüdiger Safranski. This is the middle of the poem (“the coming word”). The meaning is formed later (...spater im Fahren, / deutlich), and in the beginning - something roughly undifferentiated (Krudes). At the same time, attention is drawn to the beginning and end of the text, which seem to be closed in a ring.

It will not escape the attentive reader that the poem contains two leitmotifs, two themes: moisture and paths. A drink from a well with a carved decoration (Trunk aus dem Brunnen mit dem / Sternwurfel drauf...) - a star, which can often be found in the Swabian-Alemannic regions; and the path leading to the forest swamps above (Waldwasen, uneingeebnet...), through which there are footbridges ("unfinished, forest-covered paths...", halbbeschrittene Knuppelpfade). These Knuppelpfade of Celan are another and perhaps even more accurate name for Holzwege. The abundant moisture (Feuchtes,/viel) in the mosses, the eyebright (Augentrost) and the water of the well merge into one. The poet captures the archaic connection that exists between the eye and the source (it can be etymologically traced in many languages).

We already know: the poet names something and hides it - in ecstasy, fortune telling, oblivion. Hölderlin called and concealed the same thing in the hymn Mnemosyne. Shall we dare to step on shaky ground ourselves? Let's try to ask the question: who is the owner of the well? The answer will be unexpectedly inspired by the landscape: the owner of the well is the giant Mimir, the mysterious keeper of the source of wisdom, in which the eye of Odin is hidden, who wanted to gain knowledge of the last things. The edge of the well is overgrown with moss and covered with ivy; No one's views penetrate into the depths - only the roots of the world tree... Now, having completed the journey and returned from the logos to the mythical source, we go back down the forest path to the house.

On the stone above the grave of Martin Heidegger at the cemetery chapel in his native Messkirch there is no cross - only a star, which a traveler often encounters in the Swabian-Alemannic regions.

Martin Heidegger – a Philosopher on a Holzweg

The essay dedicated to the 120th anniversary of Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) is concerned with a hermeneutic reconstruction of Heidegger's “topological mind map” or “metaphysics of landscape” and deals with a polysemantic term Holzweg, “Timber Track” or “Forest Path” " On the one hand, a Holzweg is a timber track that leads to a clearing in the forest. On the other, it is a track that used to lead to such a place but is now overgrow and leads nowhere. The interpretation is based on poetic whitnesses of E. Junger, F. G. Junger and P. Celan.

Key words : metaphysics of landscape, hermeneutic philosophy, M. Heidegger, E. Junger, F. G. Junger, P. Celan.

Heidegger M. Fruhe Schriften. G.A., Bd. 1.Hrsg. v. Friedrich Wilhelm von Hermann. Frankfurt a. M., 1978. S. IV.

Heidegger M. Thing // Time and Being / Martin Heidegger; lane with him. . M.: Republic, 1993. P. 325. Here Heidegger speaks of the “quaternary”.

Managed to find a precise and capacious expression: “metaphysics of landscape.” Reading a philosophical text, we find ourselves in the field of action of forces that organize the space of a philosophical work. And they have a spatial property. We are talking about the “landscape” or topological nature of thought, its spatial structure, proportionality to “place” (for more details, see: The Landscape Road: Communication Strategies in philosophical culture XIX-XX centuries M.: Nauka, 1993; see also: The road and the meaning. M.: Ad Marginem, 1995. About Heidegger. pp. 246-330).

It should be noted here that for the first time the question of the connection between a certain type of philosophizing and the nature of the landscape is raised in the work: Stepun F. Towards the phenomenology of landscape // Works and days. 1912. No. 2. P. 52-56. See reprint: On the phenomenology of landscape // Works / Same; comp. . M.: ROSSPEN, 2000. P. 804-806. I am grateful for this guidance.

Heidegger M. Creative landscape // Works and reflections different years/ M. Heidegger; lane with him. . M., 1993. S. 218-219. The editors of the Saratov almanac “Res cogitans”, dedicated to the theme “Province”, again turn to this text by Heidegger: Heidegger M. Creative terrain: why do we remain in the province? (translated by A. Misurova) // Province: Theoretical almanac “Res cogitans #5”. M.: Book Review, 2009. pp. 57-59.

Compare: Trawny P. Martin Heidegger. Frankfurt/New-York: Campus-Verlag, 2003. S. 104.

Heidegger M. The source of artistic creation // Works and reflections of different years / M. Heidegger. P. 105.

See: Heidegger M. Beitrage zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis). G.A., Bd. 65.Hrsg. v. Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann. Frankfurt a. M., 1989. S. 277 f.

Hans Grimm, perhaps the most popular German writer of the interwar period, writes about the forest as an existential basis in his novel “A People Without Space”: “The forest serves as a place of refuge, providing protection and shelter. For peasants who are not able to feed themselves and their families only by cultivating the land or who have not mastered the profession of a miller, blacksmith, preacher, doctor or teacher, the forest can always provide work. Even when there is no other work to be found in the valley... a peasant can always become a coal miner, a miner, a forester” (Grimm H. Volk ohne Raum. Munchen: Albert Langen / Georg Muller, 1933. S. 14).

Heidegger M. Holzwege. 5. Aufl. Frankfurt a. M., 1972.

Karl Friedrich von Weizsäcker in his memoirs talks about a conversation with Heidegger: “One day he led me along a forest road that disappeared and ended in the middle of the forest in a place where water appeared from under thick moss. I said, “The road ends.” He looked at me slyly: “This is a forest path. It leads to the springs. Of course, I didn’t write this in the book” (Weizsacker C. F. von. Der Garten des Menschlichen. Munchen; Wien, 1977. S. 407 (trans.)).

Junger F. G. Im tiefen Granit: nachgelassene Gedichte von F. G. Junger. Hrsg. v. Citta Junger. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1983. S. 40.

Quote by: Martin B. (Hrsg.). Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich": ein Kompendium. Darmstadt: Wiss. Buchges., 1989. P. 153. Heidegger himself, recalling that meeting, wrote to Jünger about the “encouraging feeling of kinship when two people walk along a forest path”: “As I write this, I am reminded of our conversation at the end of the last decade. While walking through the forest, we stopped at a place where a forest path branches off from the road. Then I persuaded you to publish a new edition of “The Worker”…” (Heidegger M. Wegmarken. 3., durchges. Aufl. Frankfurt a. M., 1996. S. 391). Wed. also Heidegger’s letter to Jünger dated 01/01/2001 (Junger Ernst –Heidegger Martin. Briefe 1949–1975. Hrsg., komm. u. mit einem Nachwort von G. Figal. Klett-Cotta/V. Klostermann, 2008. S. 17–18 ), where Heidegger speaks of the “inspiring closeness of travelers (eine ermutigende Verwandschaft des Gehens)” walking along “the forest paths clearly marked by you.”

We are talking about the essay “Uber die Linie” (1950), published by E. Jünger in a collection in honor of the 60th anniversary of M. Heidegger. Heidegger responded five years later with an article “On the Line,” dedicated to Jünger’s 60th birthday. The discussion between the philosopher and the writer was devoted to “overcoming nihilism.” See: The fate of nihilism: E. Junger, M. Heidegger, D. Kamper, G. Figal / trans. with German, prev. and comm. G. Khaidarova. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University Publishing House, 2006.

Quote by: Martin B. (Hrsg.). Martin Heidegger und das "Dritte Reich". S. 154.

Quote by: Celan P. Poems. Prose. Letters / under general. ed. M. Belorusets. M.: Ad Marginem Press, 2008. P. 325.

Safranski R. Heidegger. The German master and his time. M.: Young Guard, 2005. pp. 556-560.

Philosophy. Cheat sheets Malyshkina Maria Viktorovna

78. Philosophy of M. Heidegger

78. Philosophy of M. Heidegger

Existentialism (from German existieren and French exister - “to exist”) is addressed not to clarifying the essence of a person, but to his everyday existence.

Martin Heidegger (1889–1975) – philosopher, founder of existentialism.

Heidegger viewed being as a kind of non-objective principle that underlies the entire world of things. This is the "immanent transcendent". It is immanent because we know it from within our own lives; being does not need to be sought far, it is closest to a person. Being is opposed to “existence” – objective reality. The world is a place where being and consciousness interact.

Heidegger believed that in the world of things there is a single entity from which the meaning of existence can be considered. This is human life. Therefore, it is necessary to describe the “worldliness of the world.”

Human existence is Dasein - “here-being”, finite, present existence. Its essence is existence - openness, aspiration to something else, access to Nothing (beyond the limits of all existence, all objectivity). Aspiration towards Nothing is an expression of our finitude, temporality, but at the same time it is an entry into the truth of being. Being, in essence, is Being unto death.

A person's existence in the everyday world can be characterized as “own” and “improper.” “Non-own being” is life “like others.” In “inauthentic being,” a person is completely immersed in existence, and he does not remember own death because his world is impersonal.

“One’s own being” is associated with the awareness of one’s mortality. In death, a person is not a function, not an object among objects. Here he is unique. He who has realized death exists, he is always ahead of himself.

The theme of nihilism occupies an important place in the work of M. Heidegger. Nihilism for Heidegger is the fate of modern European man; it is expressed in the aversion of the gaze from the supersensible world and complete immersion in material interests and passionate achievement of goals. Being on earth means for a person to build, live, think.

Heidegger paints an image of human existence “on earth.” This true existence is patriarchal peasant life.

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Part one The philosophy of Martin Heidegger in its “openness” to the East

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§2 Existential philosophy of Leopold Sédar Senghor between the existentialism of Sartre and the phenomenology of Heidegger L.S. Senghor, an outstanding African poet, thinker and statesman (President of Senegal from 1960 to 1981), is also an original philosopher. He

From the book Dispute about Plato. Stefan George's Circle and the German University author Mayatsky Mikhail A.

8.2. Philosophy of Martin Heidegger German thinker who had a tremendous influence on the philosophy of the twentieth century. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) began his career as an assistant to Edmund Husserl, a professor at the University of Freiburg. After the patron retired, he was in charge

From the book Phenomenological Psychiatry and Existential Analysis. History, thinkers, problems author Vlasova Olga Viktorovna

On the occasion of M. Heidegger's eightieth birthday Dear, dear Heidegger! Warmly congratulating you on your eightieth birthday and wishing you happiness, I take this favorable opportunity to write to you what are the most important thoughts in your writings.

From the author's book

From the author's book

§ 1. Existentialism of M. Heidegger Martin Heidegger was born on September 26, 1889 in Meskirch (Land of Baden) in Germany. Heidegger's father is a craftsman, a cooper and at the same time a cleric and bell ringer at a local Catholic church. Mother is a peasant woman. The future philosopher received

From the author's book

From the author's book

1. GENERALIZING FORMULAS OF JASPERS AND HEIDEGGER Only on the basis of ideas about existence that were still developed in free form will it now be possible to correctly understand those peculiar formulas with the help of which existential philosophers tried to capture in a concise form

From the author's book

5. The Case of Heidegger A special - and very problematic - page is the possible influence of Georgian Platonism on Heidegger's interpretation of Plato. Of course, Heidegger’s brilliant originality does not allow us to talk simply about “influences” (from George or

From the author's book

§ 5. Fundamental ontology of Martin Heidegger Martin Heidegger, developing the ideas of his teacher Edmund Husserl, simultaneously proposed several innovations that led to the emergence of a new direction in the interdisciplinary space of philosophy and psychiatry

From the author's book

§ 3. Martin Heidegger's Zollikon Seminars Existential analysis not only developed as a result of the influence of Heidegger's fundamental ontology, but was also interpreted and corrected by him. This fact of reverse influence is important for the development

Martin Heidegger(1880-1976) - German existentialist philosopher. Existentialism (from Late Latin exsistentia - existence) - “philosophy of existence”, one of the most fashionable philosophical movements in the middle of the 20th century, which was “the most direct expression of modernity, its lostness, its hopelessness... Existential philosophy expresses the general feeling of time: the feeling of decline, meaninglessness and hopelessness of everything that happens... Existential philosophy is the philosophy of radical finitude.” According to existentialism, the task of philosophy is to deal not so much with the sciences in their classical rationalistic expression, but with issues of purely individual human existence. A person, against his will, is thrown into this world, into his destiny, and lives in a world that is alien to himself. His existence is surrounded on all sides by some mysterious signs and symbols. Why does a person live? What is the meaning of his life? What is man's place in the world? What is their choice? life path? These are really very important questions that people cannot help but worry about. Existentialists proceed from a single human existence, which is characterized by a complex of negative emotions - concern, fear, consciousness of the approaching end of one’s existence. When considering all these and other problems, representatives of existentialism expressed many deep and subtle observations and considerations. The most prominent representatives of existentialism are M. Heidegger, K. Jaspers in Germany; G.O. Marcel, J.P. Sartre, A. Camus in France; Abbagnano in Italy; Barrett in the USA. This philosophy borrowed its method to a large extent from the phenomenology of E. Husserl.

In his work “Being and Time,” M. Heidegger put at the forefront the question of the meaning of being, which, in his opinion, turned out to be “forgotten” by traditional philosophy. Heidegger sought to reveal this meaning by analyzing the problem of human existence in the world. Actually, it is only man who is capable of comprehending being, it is to him that “being is revealed”, it is precisely this being-existence that is the foundation on which ontology should be built: it is impossible, when trying to comprehend the world, to forget about the one who comprehends it - man. Heidegger shifted the emphasis to being: for the questioning person, being is revealed and illuminated through everything that people know and do. A person cannot look at the world otherwise than through the prism of his being, mind, feelings, will, at the same time asking about existence as such. A thinking person is characterized by the desire to be at home everywhere in the totality, in the entire universe. This whole is our world - it is our home. Since the ultimate basis of human existence is its temporality, transience, finitude, first of all, time should be considered as the most essential characteristic of existence. Usually, human existence was analyzed specifically and in detail in the context of time and only within the framework of the present time as “eternal presence.” According to Heidegger, the personality acutely experiences the temporality of existence, but orientation to the future gives the personality genuine existence, and the “eternal limitation of the present” leads to the fact that the world of things in their everyday life obscures its finitude from the personality. Ideas such as “care”, “fear”, “guilt”, etc., express the spiritual experience of a person who feels his uniqueness, and at the same time his one-time mortality. He focuses on the individual beginning in a person’s existence - on personal choice, responsibility, the search for one’s own Self, while putting existence in connection with the world as a whole. In the future, as you philosophical development Heidegger moved on to the analysis of ideas that express not so much the personal-moral, but rather the impersonal-cosmic essence of being: “being and nothingness,” “hidden and open being,” “earthly and heavenly,” “human and divine.” At the same time, he is characterized by the desire to comprehend the nature of man himself, based on the “truth of being,” i.e. based on a broader, even extremely broad, understanding of the category of being itself. Exploring the origins of the metaphysical way of thinking and the world of view as a whole, Heidegger seeks to show how metaphysics, being the basis of all European spiritual life, gradually prepares a new worldview and technology, which set as their goal the subordination of all things to man and give rise to a style of life modern society, in particular, its urbanization and the “massification” of culture. The origins of metaphysics, according to Heidegger, go back to Plato and even Parmenides, who laid the foundation for a rationalistic understanding of existence and the interpretation of thinking as the contemplation of eternal realities, i.e. something self-identical and abiding. In contrast to this tradition, Heidegger uses the thorn “listening” to characterize true thinking: being cannot simply be contemplated - it can and should only be listened to. Overcoming metaphysical thinking requires, according to Heidegger, a return to the original, but unrealized possibilities of European culture, to that “pre-Socratic” Greece, which still lived “in the truth of being.” Such a view is possible because (albeit “forgotten”) being still lives in the most intimate womb of culture - in language: “Language is the house of being.” However, when modern attitude to language as a tool, it is technicalized, becomes only a means of transmitting information and therefore dies as a genuine “speech”, as a “utterance”, a “story”, therefore the last thread that connects man and his culture with being is lost, and the language itself becomes dead. This is why the task of “listening” is characterized by Heidegger as world-historical. It turns out that it is not people who speak in language, but language that “speaks” to people and “to people.” Language, which reveals the “truth” of being, continues to live primarily in the works of poets (it is no coincidence that Heidegger turned to the study of the works of F. Hölderlin, R. Rilke, etc.). He was close to the spirit of German romanticism, expressing romantic relationship to art as a repository of being, giving a person “security” and “reliability”. IN last years life in search of being, Heidegger increasingly turned his gaze to the East, in particular to Zen Buddhism, with which he was related by a longing for the “inexpressible” and “ineffable”, a penchant for mystical contemplation and metaphorical expression. Thus, if in his early works Heidegger sought to build philosophical system, then he subsequently proclaimed the impossibility of rational comprehension of existence. In his later works, Heidegger, trying to overcome the subjectivism and psychologism of his position, brought to the fore being as such. And in fact, without taking into account objective existence and clarifying its properties and relationships, in a word, without comprehending the essence of things, a person simply could not survive. After all, being in the world is revealed through not only the understanding of the world, which is integral to man, but also doing,” which presupposes "care".

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