Let us now turn to the literature Kievan Rus. It would be completely wrong to believe that it was translated Literature that was the only and main school of literary excellence for ancient Russian translators and writers. They were greatly influenced by the rich traditions of oral folk art, and, above all, the traditions of the Slavic epic.

As we will see later, folk epic legends represent an exceptionally vivid artistic phenomenon that has no analogues in the monuments of translated literature known to us. Old Russian scribes used the rich traditions of oral public speeches: short speeches of princes, in which they inspired their soldiers before battles, speeches given by witnesses and judges at trials, speeches delivered at veche meetings, speeches with which princes sent their ambassadors to other princes or foreign rulers, etc. Treaties, legal documents and regulations also contributed to the formation of the Russian literary language, and to some extent participated in the formation of the language of Russian literature.

Turning to the analysis of the first original works of literature of Kievan Rus, we will also see that it is original not only in language, not only in the system of images or plot motifs, but also in genre terms: neither the Russian chronicles have a genre analogy in Byzantine and Bulgarian literature , nor “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” nor “The Teaching of Vladimir Monomakh,” nor “The Prayer of Daniel the Imprisoner,” nor some other monuments.

One of the first, most important genres of emerging Russian literature was the genre of chronicle.

Historical memory eastern Slavic peoples stretched back several centuries: traditions and legends were passed down from generation to generation about the settlement of Slavic tribes, about the clashes of the Slavs with the Avars (Obras), about the founding of Kyiv, about the glorious deeds of the first Kyiv princes.

The emergence of writing made it possible to record oral historical traditions and prompted the subsequent recording of everything in writing. major events of its time. This is how chronicle writing arose. It was the chronicle that was destined for several centuries, until the 17th century, to become not a simple weather record of current events, but one of the leading literary genres, in the depths of which Russian plot narration developed.

Byzantine chronicles and Russian chronicles. Explorers of the 19th century and the beginning of our century, it was believed that Russian chronicle writing arose as an imitation of Byzantine chronography. This is not true. Firstly, the Byzantine chronicles were not used by Russian scribes for initial stage development of Russian chronicles. Secondly, and this is very important, Russian chronicles are built on a completely different principle than Byzantine chronicles. In the chronicles (in particular, in the “Chronicle of George Amartol” and “The Chronicle of John Malala”) historical process divided by reign: the history of the reign of one king or emperor is told, then his successor, then the successor of this latter, etc. Chronicles are characterized by an indication not of the year of accession of this or that ruler, but of the duration of his reign. The structure of Russian chronicles is different: the chronicler records the events that occurred in a particular year, not the sequence of reigns, but the sequence of events. Each chronicle article is dedicated to one year and begins with the words “In the summer...” (followed by an indication of the year “from the creation of the world”).

This is also an important ideological difference between the Russian chronicle and the Byzantine chronicle: what comes to the fore is not the personality of the emperor and the characteristics of his reign, but the very course of history, the history of the state and the people as a whole.

Both chronicles and chronicles (chronographs) were codes, or compilations. A chronicler or chronicler could not recount events based on his own impressions and observations, if only because both chronicles and chronicles sought to begin the presentation from the “very beginning” (from the “creation of the world”, from the formation of this or that state, etc.). etc.), and, consequently, the chronicler was forced to turn to sources that existed before him, telling about more ancient times. On the other hand, the chronicler could not simply continue the chronicle of his predecessor. Firstly, it could not because each chronicler, as a rule, pursued some of his own political tendencies and, in accordance with it, revised the text of his protograph, not only omitting insignificant materials or those that did not suit him politically, but also supplementing it with extracts from new sources, thus creating his own version of the chronicle narrative, different from the previous ones. Secondly, so that his work did not acquire an exorbitant volume from the combination of many extensive sources, the chronicler had to sacrifice something, releasing messages that seemed less significant to him.

All this makes it extremely difficult to study chronicles, establish their sources, and characterize the work of each chronicler. It turned out to be especially difficult to restore the history of the oldest Russian chronicles, since we only have lists of chronicles of a much later time (Novgorod Chronicle of the 13th-14th centuries, Laurentian Chronicle of 1377, Ipatiev Chronicle of the early 15th century), moreover, reflecting not the most ancient chronicles , and their subsequent processing.

Therefore, the history of the most ancient chronicles is to a certain extent hypothetical. The hypothesis of Academician A. A. Shakhmatov is considered the most acceptable and authoritative, on which literary scholars and historians rely in their private studies of most chronicle monuments of Kievan Rus.

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"Hardly in any other country medieval world you can find so many cross-cultural phenomena as in Rus',” wrote the Soviet historian and public figure V.D. Grekov.

And then he continues: “Byzantium, the peoples of the East and the Caucasus, Western Europe and Scandinavia surrounded Rus' with a ring. Persian fabrics, Arabic silver, Chinese materials, Syrian products, Egyptian dishes, Byzantine brocade, Frankish swords went to Rus' and, of course, served not only as an object of consumption for the rich classes of Russian society, but also as models for the artistic creativity of Russian masters.”

State of Kievan Rus

Association Eastern Slavs led to the formation of a powerful state - Kievan Rus. And in size it was one of the largest states in Europe at that time.
Many of its statesmen of the 9th-11th centuries made contributions to the formation of Kievan Rus: Prophetic Oleg, Prince of Novgorod from 879 and Grand Duke of Kiev from 882, who strengthened his shield on the gates of Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium; princes Igor and Svyatoslav, who achieved that Byzantium began to bring tribute to the Russian state; Vladimir, who conquered Crimea and Livonia (Baltic states). The adoption of Christianity further strengthened the authority of princely power in the Kiev state.
At the same time, the Russian language began to take shape. Here's what A.S. writes about it. Pushkin: “As a material for literature, the Slavic-Russian language has an undeniable superiority over all European ones: its fate was extremely happy. In the 11th century ancient Greek suddenly opened to him his vocabulary, a treasury of harmony, gave him the laws of his thoughtful grammar, his beautiful turns of phrase, the majestic flow of speech; in a word, he adopted him, thus saving him from the slow improvement of time. In itself it is already sonorous and expressive, from now on it will acquire flexibility and correctness. The common vernacular had to be separated from the bookish one; but later they became closer, and such is the element given to us to communicate our thoughts.”
The fate of the Russian ancient art was similar: Byzantine culture successfully superimposed on the already sufficiently mature artistic foundations of the culture of our people, thereby preventing improvements that were slow over time.

Baptism of Rus'

When we talk about the baptism of Russia, we mean the introduction of Christianity as a state religion, as well as the process of the spread of Christianity in Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries.
The year of the baptism of Rus' is usually called 988, but there are other opinions (990 or 991).
There are also conflicting opinions about the first Russian Christians, but it is reliably known that the first ruler of Kievan Rus to officially convert to Christianity Byzantine rite, in 957 became Princess Olga.

M. Nesterov “Saint Olga”. Sketch of the painting of the Cathedral of St. Vladimir in Kyiv (1892)
Princess Olga (baptized Elena, c. 920-969) ruled the Old Russian state from 945 to 960 as regent for her young son Svyatoslav after the death of her husband, Prince of Kyiv Igor Rurikovich. In 957, Olga paid an official visit to Constantinople with a large embassy; she sought baptism and recognition of Rus' by Byzantium as an equal Christian empire.

Olga's baptism in Constantinople. Miniature from the Radziwill Chronicle
From The Tale of Bygone Years we learn that before his baptism, Prince Vladimir “tested his faith.” Islam was offered to him, but he rejected it for the reason that Muslims have a ban on drinking wine (“Rus' has joy in drinking”). He also did not accept Catholicism (“and our fathers did not accept it”). The Khazar Jews offered Vladimir to convert to Judaism - Vladimir also refused. Then the Byzantine Philosopher arrived in Rus'. He told the Russian prince about biblical history And Christian faith. It was decided to further test faith by attending services among Muslims, Germans and Greeks. When, after visiting Constantinople, the envoys returned to Kyiv, they delightedly told the prince: “They didn’t know where we were - in heaven or on earth.” So Vladimir made a choice in favor of Christianity according to the Greek rite.

V. Vasnetsov “The Baptism of Prince Vladimir.” Fresco in the Kiev Vladimir Cathedral (late 1880s)
Novgorod, Chernigov, Vladimir-Volynsky, Polotsk, Pereyaslavl, etc. gradually adopted Christianity. In some territories, Christianity was imposed by force: they were destroyed places of worship pagans who resisted were subjected to repression.

Consequences of the adoption of Christianity in Rus'

“... The adoption of Christianity in Rus' not only introduced the most extensive and most remote part of a single space - Eastern Europe - to the already Christian world, but also thereby, in the historically near future, opened up a new huge world, which was to be Christianized with the help of Russian Christians, " workers of the eleventh hour"... And whatever the subsequent fate of Christianity in Eastern Europe, its legacy has become irrevocable integral part spiritual culture here too,” perhaps especially here” (V.N. Toporov).
The adoption of Christianity contributed to the development of architecture and painting in the state and the penetration of Byzantine culture. The spread of Cyrillic writing and books was especially important: it was after the baptism of Rus' that the first monuments of ancient Russian written culture arose.
Paganism was gradually eradicated.

Kyiv is the mother of Russian cities

Scenic and architectural works Ancient Rus' marked by a life-affirming folk principle, which successfully combined with Byzantine aristocracy.
The Kyiv state asserted the inseparability of the secular and church hierarchies. And this was clearly manifested in ancient Russian architecture - the scope of monumental construction in Kievan Rus was a logical and natural phenomenon. Foreign travelers called Kyiv the second Constantinople. Batu’s grandson was also struck by its beauty when he approached the walls of the city to plunder it.
In the 11th century St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Kyiv.

St. Sophia Cathedral

According to the chronicle, it was built by Prince Yaroslav the Wise on the site of the victory in 1036 over the Pechenegs. Inside the cathedral, the world's most complete ensemble of original mosaics and frescoes from the first half of the 11th century has been preserved. and significant fragments of mural painting from later times - XVII-XVIII centuries. St. Sophia Cathedral delighted everyone who saw it, even after the reconstruction of the 16th-17th centuries. Bishop Vereshchinsky described the impression of the cathedral in the following way: “Very many agree that in all of Europe there are no churches that, in terms of preciousness and elegance of decoration, would stand higher than those of Constantinople and Kyiv.” Traveler Pavel Alepsky, after visiting Sofia in Kyiv, said that “the human mind is not able to embrace it.”

Kyiv was considered one of the largest and richest cities in Europe in the 11th-12th centuries. At the same time, the city was exceptionally developed in the field of mental and artistic culture. Manuscripts were stored and copied in the library founded at the St. Sophia Cathedral. Kyiv was the founder of handwritten creativity.
Russian crafts were highly valued, Russian weapons were famous not only in Byzantium, but throughout Europe and Central Asia. Chain mail appeared in Rus' 200 years earlier than in the West, Russian-made swords were decorated with amazing patterns.
For temple construction, Vladimir commissioned Greek architects, who were considered the most skillful in the entire Christian world. They brought to Rus' the already established system of the cross-domed church. This system is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided into 9 cells by 4 pillars. The ceiling is cruciformly arranged cylindrical vaults, and above the central cell, on girth arches, a drum with a dome rises. The history of the construction of stone cross-domed churches in Rus' began with the construction of the Church of the Tithes in Kyiv (989-996) and continues in the 21st century. in connection with active church construction throughout Russia.

Silver coin dedicated to the 1000th anniversary of the construction of the Tithe Church in Kyiv
The Byzantines also brought mosaics to Rus'. It was widely used to decorate temples. On the territory Pechersk Lavra Excavations of a glass workshop were found, which indicates the possibility of local production of mosaic material. But both ancient Russian masters introduced national characteristics into temple construction and mosaic decorations.

Mosaics decorate main altar and the dome of St. Sophia Cathedral. On the main dome, Christ is depicted in a purple tunic and a blue cloak. The medallion is surrounded by nine multi-colored circles resembling a rainbow. Around Christ the Pantocrator are four archangels, only one of them (in a blue outfit) is mosaic, while the others were painted in oils by M.A. in 1884. Vrubel.

Artistic crafts of Kievan Rus

Ancient masters understood that the elegant and beautiful should be present not only in museums and paintings, but also in everyday life: a glass, a spoon, and a cabinet should evoke an aesthetic feeling. Artistic craft in Kyiv has reached a high level. Old Russian artisans produced more than 150 types of iron and steel products. These products played an important role in the development of trade relations between cities and rural areas. Old Russian jewelry art also flourished.
The main material for production in Rus' was wood. Dwellings, city fortifications, workshops were made from it, outbuildings, ships, sleighs, pavements, water pipes, machines and machines, tools and tools, dishes, furniture, household utensils, children's toys, etc.

N.K. Roerich “The City is being Built” (1902)
In the craft production of Ancient Rus', spinning and weaving occupied a large place. It was the most widespread and widespread, directly related to the manufacture of clothing and other household items. The range of ancient Russian fabrics was very wide. In addition to locally produced fabrics, imported ones were also used: wool, silk, cotton, imported from the countries of the East, Byzantium and Western Europe. Fabrics in the form of various fragments are widely represented among ancient Russian archaeological finds. Some of them were discovered in burial mounds, the rest - during excavations of ancient Russian cities.
In Ancient Rus', fabrics were made from wool, flax and hemp.
The widespread distribution of clays suitable for making ceramic tableware ensured the widespread development of pottery in Ancient Rus'.

Pot from the Krapivensky settlement (XI-XIII centuries) from the collections of the Shebekino Historical and Art Museum
In the 11th century originated, and in the XII-XIII centuries. glassmaking has developed.

Ostromir Gospel
And they were proud of book printing in Ancient Rus'; when there was a fire, books were the first to be saved. In the Public Library. M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in St. Petersburg, the “Ostromir Gospel”, written in 1056-1057, is kept. Deacon Gregory by order of the mayor Ostromir, close to Prince Izyaslav. The Gospel is written in large, beautiful script; the size of the letters gradually increases towards the end of the book (from 5 to 7 mm). The text is written in two columns of 18 lines on an area of ​​about 20x24 cm. Numerous multi-colored initial letters, marginalia, headpieces, images of evangelists; The text uses cinnabar. The manuscript consists of 294 sheets of good quality parchment.

Miniature from the Gospel

Page from the Gospel
But the art of the Kyiv state should not be understood only as the art of Kyiv. For example, in Chernigov there was built a interior decoration Kyiv Sophia Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior (XI century), the beautiful Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral, crowned with 5 helmet-shaped chapters (XI century), etc.

Spaso-Preobrazhensky Cathedral in Chernigov

Novgorod St. Sophia Cathedral
Their own architectural and painting schools arose in Polotsk, Smolensk and other cities of Ancient Rus'.

“... The history of the Kyiv state is not the history of Ukraine, not the history of Belarus, not the history of Great Russia. This is the history of a state that made it possible for Ukraine, Belarus, and Great Russia to mature and grow. This situation contains the whole enormous meaning of this period in the life of our country” (B.D. Grekov, Soviet historian and public figure).

IN ancient Russian architecture Wooden construction predominated.
At the time of the transformation of Christianity into the state religion, Rus' already possessed a developed art of architecture. But only wooden monuments from later times – the 17th and 18th centuries – have survived to this day.

In the temple, not only divine services and sacraments were performed (baptism, communion, etc.), but also secular ceremonies - for example, the solemn accession of a prince to the throne. In the temple building there was the residence of the metropolitan (head of Orthodox Church). In the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv there was the first library, archive, and school in Rus'. Princes and metropolitans were buried here. Yaroslav the Wise himself was buried in this temple in 1054. This temple in Kyiv has survived to this day.

With the establishment of a new state religion, temple architecture appears.
Stone architecture was more suited to the new tasks. Like the new religion, it came from Byzantium, which was the most advanced country in Europe in the 10th and 11th centuries.
In 989 - 996 Prince Vladimir builds the Cathedral Church of the Mother of God in Kyiv - the famous Tithe Church.

According to the chronicle, Grand Duke Vladimir the Red Sun “thought of creating the Church of the Most Holy Theotokos and sent craftsmen from the Greeks.” The brick church was founded in Kiev next to the princely court in 989. Prince Vladimir gave it a tithe of his income, so the church was called Tithe. This is the oldest monumental building known to us in Rus'.
The multi-domed Tithe Church consisted of three naves, separated by three pairs of pillars; It had three apses. Its dimensions were 27.2 x 18.2 m. It was surrounded on three sides by galleries. Inside the temple there were choirs - a balcony for the prince and his entourage.
The church building was built from plinth. Plinfa is a flat brick measuring 30x40x5 cm. In Kyiv, the plinth was special, thin - only 2.5-3 cm thick. Greek craftsmen brought with them many marble details of interior decoration (Rus did not yet know marble).
On the square in front of the temple they placed “four horses of the copperhead” - trophy sculptures from Korsun.
The church collapsed during the capture of Kyiv by the Mongols in 1240, when the surviving inhabitants of the city took refuge in it. Only the remains of the foundation have survived.

During the time of Yaroslav the Wise (978-1054), the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv reached a special peak. Metropolitan Hilarion wrote: “ We see the city shining with majesty, we see the churches blooming, we see Christianity growing, we see the city illuminated with icons of the saints... and we announce the praises and divine songs of the saints. And when you saw everything, you rejoiced, and were glad, and called... everyone for this builder.»

About 400 churches decorated Kyiv. You could enter the city through one of the gates in the four-kilometer wall.
The Golden Gate was located in the southwest and faced Constantinople-Constantinople.

The most famous temple building of ancient Kyiv was the Hagia Sophia Cathedral

Under Yaroslav the Wise in the 30s of the 11th century. The Hagia Sophia Cathedral is being built in the center of Kyiv. 1037 – beginning 1040s
The temple is dedicated to Sophia - “The Wisdom of God”. It belongs to the works of Byzantine-Kyiv architecture.
In terms of the breadth of architectural design, Kyiv clearly competed with Constantinople (Constantinople).

Sophia was originally crowned with thirteen chapters, forming a pyramidal composition. Now the temple has 19 domes. In ancient times, the roof consisted of lead sheets laid on the vaults.

The temple was built using the mixed masonry technique: rows of square bricks (plinths) alternate with rows of stones, and then covered with limestone coating - plaster.

“The visual program of the Kyiv temple was entrusted with an educational mission. In the conditions of a pagan country until recently, Christian stories displayed on church walls were a visual narrative about new faith for the illiterate people, who for the most part could not read either Greek or Slavic.”
“The central space and choirs, flooded with light, contrasted with the semi-shaded rooms under the choirs, which constituted one of essential elements artistic design of the interior. The center was decorated with precious mosaics, and the sides were painted with frescoes.”

Mosaics of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. 1040s

Byzantine features:
- (Byzantine painting was the successor to the traditions of antiquity)
- Canons of constructing the human figure,
- Clarity of composition.
- The solemn figures of Byzantine saints with ascetic faces contradicted the cheerful popular ideas of the Slavs about the world around them.

In ancient Russian painting, its own features appeared early:
- Squat figures.
- Large faces.
- Heavy lines.
- Contrasting black and white molding of forms.

The arrangement of mosaics and frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv is fully consistent with Byzantine canons.

Limestone soil, smalt, brick, colored stone.
Located in the central dome.
Christ Pantocrator, with a book in his hands, looks sternly down at the human race gathered in the church.
The most monumental image in the art of Rus' of the 11th century.
The diameter of the medallion in which it is enclosed is more than four meters, the distance from the floor is 28.5 meters.

Such full-length images ancient tradition often placed at the top of the altar - in the conch.
In its style and execution style, the Kiev “Oranta” is close to similar Byzantine mosaics of the early 11th century.

Below the “Mother of God” in the apse is the “Eucharist” - the scene of Christ’s communion of the apostles with wine and bread.
Eucharist. Mosaic of St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv. 1040s
In the composition, Christ is often written twice. The procession of the apostles Peter and Paul is led.

The Eucharist, communion or breaking of bread is one of the main church sacraments. « The Lord Jesus, on the night in which He was betrayed, took bread and, having given thanks, broke it and said: Take, eat, this is My Body, broken for you; do this in remembrance of Me. He also took the cup after supper, and said, “This cup is New Testament in My Blood; Do this whenever you drink, in remembrance of Me. For as often as you eat this bread and drink this cup, you proclaim the death of the Lord until He comes.».

Mosaic on the altar pillars.
This mosaic of St. Sophia Cathedral is the earliest surviving “Annunciation” in ancient Russian art.

After Kyiv, St. Sophia Cathedrals were erected in Novgorod and Polotsk. In many ways they are similar to Kyiv.

Already in the second half of the 11th century, Russian craftsmen played a significant role in the construction of temples.
In architectural monuments of the second half of the 11th – early 12th centuries. a desire for greater rigor and simplicity appears, the multi-domed structure disappears, although they still belong to the Kiev-Byzantine architectural tradition.

Construction and internal structure of the temple

Rus' adopted the cross-domed design of the temple from Byzantium.
This type of church is square in plan. Its internal space is divided by four pillars into three naves (from the Latin - ship): central and side. The two vaults intersect at right angles, forming a cross in the space under the dome - the most important symbol of Christianity. At the intersection of the arches there is a light drum topped with a dome. It rests on pillars connected by arches (they are called girth arches).
The upper part of the temple walls is completed by zakomars (from Old Russian komar, komor - vault). They are semicircular, as they follow the shape of the vaults.

Usually the temple has three entrances: the main (western) and two side (north and south). In Ancient Rus', galleries or walkways (from the word “walk”) were built around the church. They were erected on three sides - northern, western and southern. Some churches had annex chapels, each of which had its own altar and could perform services. The extension on the western side of the temple (where the main entrance was) was called the narthex.

The first domes in Rus' were low and semicircular. They repeated the shape of the domes of Byzantine churches. Then helmet-shaped domes appeared (helmet, shelom - an ancient military metal headdress), and even later - bulbous ones.
The number of domes had a symbolic meaning. Two domes meant the divine and earthly origin of Christ, three domes - a symbol of the Holy Trinity (God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit), five - Christ and the four evangelists, thirteen - Christ and the 12 disciples-apostles. Each dome is topped with an Orthodox cross, always facing east.

Conclusions

Kievan Rus is the first Slavic state. Much of the culture and art of this period was borrowed from Byzantium.
But the significance of the Kyiv period of ancient Russian art lies in the fact that it was the first stage in the formation of Russian national art.
In architecture, the desire for greater expressiveness through laconicism and simplicity.
In painting - the addition of the Byzantine style with folk traditions (squat figures, large faces, heavy lines, flat compositions, contrasting light and shadow modeling of forms).

How the culture of Rus' was born. The culture of a people is part of its history. Its formation and subsequent development are associated with the same historical factors that influence the formation and development of the country’s economy, its statehood, and the political and spiritual life of society. The concept of culture includes everything that is created by the mind, talent, and hands of the people, everything that expresses its spiritual essence, its view of the world, of nature, of human existence, of human relationships.

Map. Kievan Rus in the 10th - 12th centuries.

The entire original cultural experience of the Eastern Slavs became the property of a single Russian culture. It developed as a culture of all Eastern Slavs, while at the same time maintaining its regional features - some for the Dnieper region, others for North-Eastern Rus', etc.

The development of Russian culture was also influenced by the fact that Rus' developed as a flat country, open to everyone - both intra-tribal, domestic, and foreign, international - influences. And this came from the depths of centuries. The general culture of Rus' reflected both the traditions of, say, the Polans, Northerners, Radimichi, Novgorod Slovenes, Vyatichi, and other tribes, as well as the influence of neighboring peoples with whom Rus' exchanged production skills, traded, fought, made peace - Ugro-Finns, Balts, Iranian peoples , Western and Southern Slavic peoples. Rus' was strongly influenced by Byzantium, which for its time was one of the most cultural states in the world. Thus, the culture of Rus' developed from the very beginning as synthetic, that is, influenced by various cultural movements, styles, and traditions.

At the same time, Rus' not only copied foreign influences and recklessly borrowed them, but applied them to its cultural traditions, to its folk experience that has come down from time immemorial, to its understanding of the world around us, and to its idea of ​​beauty. Therefore, within the characteristics of Russian culture, we are constantly faced not only with influences from outside, but also with their sometimes significant spiritual processing, their constant refraction in an absolutely Russian style.

For many years, Russian culture developed under the influence of pagan religion and pagan worldview. With the adoption of Christianity by Russia, the situation changed dramatically. New religion claimed to change people's worldview, their perception of all life, and therefore their ideas about beauty, artistic creativity, and aesthetic influence. However, Christianity, having had a strong impact on Russian culture, especially in the field of literature, architecture, art, literacy development, school affairs, and libraries, did not overcome the folk origins of Russian culture. For many years, dual faith remained in Rus': official religion, which prevailed in the cities, and paganism, which faded into the shadows, but still existed in remote parts of Rus', retained its position in the countryside. The development of Russian culture reflected this duality in the spiritual life of society and in folk life. Pagan spiritual traditions, folk at their core, had a profound impact on the entire development of Russian culture.

Under the influence of folk traditions, foundations, habits, under the influence of the people's worldview, church culture itself and religious ideology were filled with new content. The harsh, ascetic Christianity of Byzantium, transferred to Russian soil with its cult of nature, with the worship of the sun, light, wind, with its cheerfulness, love of life, deep humanity, was significantly transformed. This is reflected in all areas of culture. It is no coincidence that in many church cultural monuments, for example in the works of church authors, we see completely secular, worldly reasoning and reflection of purely worldly passions, and the top spiritual achievement Ancient Rus' - the brilliant "Tale of Igor's Campaign" - everything is permeated with pagan motifs.

The openness and synthetic nature of ancient Russian culture, its powerful reliance on folk origins and popular perception, developed by the entire long-suffering history of the Eastern Slavs, the interweaving of Christian and folk-pagan influences led to what in world history is called the phenomenon of Russian culture. Its long-suffering history of the Eastern Slavs, the interweaving of Christian and folk-pagan influences led to what in world history is called the phenomenon of Russian culture. Its characteristic features are the desire for monumentality, scale, imagery in chronicle writing; nationality, integrity and simplicity in art; grace, a deeply humanistic principle in architecture; gentleness, love of life, kindness in painting; the constant beating of the pulse of quest, doubt, passion in literature. And all this was dominated by the great unity of the creator of cultural values ​​with nature, his sense of belonging to all of humanity, worries about people, their pain and misfortunes. It is no coincidence that, again, one of the favorite images of the Russian church and culture has become the image of Saints Boris and Gleb, lovers of humanity, non-resistance, who suffered for the unity of the country, who accepted torment for the sake of the people.

Writing, literacy, schools. The basis of any ancient culture is writing. When did it originate in Rus'? For a long time there was an opinion that writing came to Rus' along with Christianity. However, it is difficult to agree with this. There is evidence of the existence of Slavic writing long before the Christianization of Rus'. This is what he says "Life" Slavic enlightener Kirill. During his stay in Chersonesos in the 60s. 9th century he became acquainted with the Gospel written in Slavic letters. In the future Cyril and his brother Methodius became the founders of the Slavic alphabet, which, apparently, was in some part based on the principles of Slavic writing that existed among the Eastern, Southern and Western Slavs before their Christianization.

We must also remember that the treaties between Rus' and Byzantium dating back to the first half of the 10th century were also written in Greek and Russian. The existence of interpreters - translators and scribes who recorded the speeches of ambassadors on parchment - dates back to this time.

Nevertheless, the Christianization of Rus' gave a powerful impetus to the further development of writing and literacy. Church scholars and translators from Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Serbia began to come to Rus'. Numerous translations of Greek and Bulgarian books of both ecclesiastical and secular content appeared, especially during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise and his sons. In particular, Byzantine historical works and biographies of saints were translated. Translations became the property of literate people: they were read with pleasure in the princely-boyar, merchant environment, in monasteries, churches, where Russian chronicle writing originated. In the 11th century such popular translated works as "Alexandria", containing legends and traditions about the life and exploits of Alexander the Great, "Devgenie's act", which was a translation of the Byzantine epic poem about the exploits of the warrior Digenis.

The cadres of the first Russian literati, scribes, and translators were formed in schools that were opened at churches since the time of Vladimir Svyatoslavich and Yaroslav the Wise, and later at monasteries. There is a lot of evidence of the widespread development of literacy in Rus' in the 11th-12th centuries, especially among wealthy townspeople, the princely-boyar elite, merchants, and artisans. In rural areas, in remote, remote places, the population was almost entirely illiterate.

From the 11th century In wealthy families, they began to teach literacy not only to boys, but also to girls. Sister of Vladimir Monomakh Yanka, founder convent in Kyiv, created a school there to educate girls.

A clear indication of the widespread spread of literacy in cities and suburbs are the so-called birch bark letters. In 1951, during archaeological excavations in Novgorod, birch bark with well-preserved letters on it was removed from the ground. Since then, hundreds of birch bark letters have been found, indicating that in Novgorod, Pskov, Vitebsk, Smolensk, and other cities of Rus', people loved and knew how to write to each other. Among the letters are business, including legal, documents, exchange of information, invitations to visit, and even love correspondence.

There remains one more interesting evidence of the development of literacy in Rus' - the so-called graffiti inscriptions. They were scratched on the walls of churches by those who loved to pour out their souls. Among these inscriptions are reflections on life, complaints, and prayers. Thus, Vladimir Monomakh, while still a young man, during a church service, lost in a crowd of the same young princes, scrawled on the wall of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv: “Oh, it’s hard for me” - and signed with his Christian name Vasily.

Chronicles. Chronicles are the focus of the history of Ancient Rus', its ideology, understanding of its place in world history; they are one of the most important monuments of writing, literature, history, and culture in general. Only the most literate, knowledgeable, wise people took on the task of compiling chronicles, i.e., presenting events year by year, capable of not only setting out various affairs year after year, but also giving them an appropriate explanation, leaving posterity a clear vision of the era.

The chronicle was a state and princely matter. Therefore, the order to compile a chronicle was given not just to the most literate and intelligent person, but also to the one who would be able to implement ideas close to this or that princely house.

Chronicles, according to scientists, appeared in Rus' shortly after the introduction of Christianity. The first chronicle was probably compiled at the end of the 10th century. It was intended to reflect the history of Rus' before the reign of Vladimir with his impressive victories and the introduction of Christianity. From this time on, the right and duty to keep chronicles were given to church leaders. It was in churches and monasteries that the most literate, well-prepared and ancient tales, legends, epics, traditions were found; They also had the grand ducal archives at their disposal.

The second chronicle was created at the time when he united Rus' and founded the Church of St. Sophia. This chronicle absorbed the previous chronicle and other materials.

The compiler of the next chronicle acted not only as the author of newly written parts of the chronicle, but also as the compiler and editor of previous entries. It was his ability to direct the idea of ​​the chronicle in the right direction that was highly valued by the Kyiv princes.

The vault, which went down in history under the name "The Tale of Bygone Years", was created in the first decade of the 12th century. at the court of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. Most historians consider the author of this code to be the monk of the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Nestor.

In the first lines, the chronicler posed the question: “Where did the Russian land come from, who was the first to reign in Kyiv and where did the Russian land come from?” Thus, already in these first words of the chronicle it speaks of the large-scale goals that the author set for himself. And indeed, the chronicle did not become an ordinary chronicle, of which there were many in the world at that time - dry, dispassionately recording facts, but an excited story of the then historian, who introduced philosophical and religious generalizations, his own temperament and style into the narrative.

Using previous codes and documentary materials, including, for example, treaties between Rus' and Byzantium, the chronicler develops a wide panorama historical events, which cover both the internal history of Rus' - the formation of all-Russian statehood with its center in Kyiv, and the international relations of Rus' with the outside world. A whole gallery of historical figures runs through the pages of The Tale of Bygone Years - princes, boyars, posadniks, thousands, warriors, merchants, church leaders. It tells about military campaigns and the organization of monasteries, the foundation of new churches and the opening of schools, about religious disputes and reforms. Nestor constantly concerns the life of the people as a whole, their moods, expressions of discontent. On the pages of the chronicle we read about uprisings, murders of princes and boyars, and brutal social battles. The author describes all this thoughtfully and calmly, trying to be as objective as deeply objective can be. religious person, guided in his assessments by the concepts of Christian virtue and sin. Nestor condemns murder, betrayal, deception, perjury, extols honesty, courage, loyalty, nobility, and other wonderful human qualities. The entire chronicle was imbued with a sense of the unity of Rus' and a patriotic mood. All the main events in it were assessed not only from the point of view religious concepts, but also from the standpoint of these all-Russian state ideals.

In 1116-1118 the chronicle was rewritten again. Vladimir Monomakh, who was then reigning in Kyiv, and his son Mstislav were dissatisfied with the way Nestor showed the role of Svyatopolk in Russian history, by whose order it was written "The Tale of Bygone Years". Monomakh took away the chronicle from Pechersk monks and transferred it to his family Vydubitsky monastery. His abbot Sylvester became the author of the new code. In it, positive assessments of Svyatopolk were moderated, but all the actions of Vladimir Monomakh were emphasized, but the main part "Tales of Bygone Years" remained unchanged. And in the future, “The Tale of Bygone Years” was an indispensable component of both the Kyiv chronicles and the chronicles of individual Russian principalities, being one of the connecting threads for all Russian culture.

With the rise of individual Russian centers, the chronicle began to fragment. In addition to Kyiv and Novgorod, their own chronicle collections appeared in Smolensk, Pskov, Vladimir-on-Klyazma, Galich, Vladimir-Volynsky, Ryazan, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl. Each of them reflected the peculiarities of the history of its region, with its own princes coming to the fore. Thus, the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicles showed the history of the reigns of Yuri Dolgoruky, Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest; Galician chronicle of the beginning of the 13th century. became, in essence, a biography of the warrior prince Daniil of Galicia; The Chernigov chronicle mainly told about the descendants of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. And yet, even in this local chronicle, all-Russian cultural origins were clearly visible. Some local chronicles continued the tradition of Russian chronicles of the 11th century. So, at the turn of the XII - XIII centuries. In Kyiv, a new chronicle was created, which reflected the events that took place in Chernigov, Galich, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', Ryazan and other Russian cities. It is clear that the author of the code had at his disposal the chronicles of various Russian principalities and used them. The chronicler also knew European history well.

The preservation of the all-Russian chronicle tradition was shown by the Vladimir-Suzdal chronicle code of the early 13th century, which covered the history of the country from the legendary Kiy to Vsevolod the Big Nest.

Old Russian literature XII century

We do not know the names of the authors of the tales about Oleg’s campaigns, Olga’s baptism, or Svyatoslav’s wars. First known author literary work Metropolitan Hilarion became Metropolitan of Rus'. In the early 40s. XI century he created his famous "A Word on Law and Grace", in which he outlined his understanding of Rus'’s place in world history in a vivid journalistic form. This "Word..." is devoted to the substantiation of the state-ideological concept of Rus', the full place of Rus' among other peoples and states, the role of the grand ducal power, its significance for the Russian lands. “The Word...” explained the meaning of the baptism of Rus' and revealed the role of the Russian church in the history of the country. This listing alone indicates the scale of Hilarion’s work.

The main theme of Hilarion's "Lay..." was the idea of ​​equal rights for Rus' among other peoples and states. The author asserts the freedom of choice of religion on the part of Rus', notes the importance of Vladimir as a Russian apostle, compares him with Emperor Constantine the Great, who made Christianity state religion The Roman Empire, with the first Christian apostles. Speaking about the first Russian princes, Hilarion proudly notes: “They were not rulers in a bad country or an unknown land, but in the Russian one, which is known and heard in all ends of the earth.” This idea of ​​​​connecting Rus' with world history was then reflected in the Tale of Bygone Years.

In the second half of the 11th century. other bright literary and journalistic works also appear, for example "Memory and praise of Vladimir" monk Jacob, in which Hilarion’s ideas are further developed and applied to the historical figure of Vladimir Svyatoslavich. At the same time, they are created “The Legend of the Initial Spread of Christianity in Rus'”, “The Legend of Boris and Gleb”, patron saints and defenders of the Russian land.

In the last quarter of the 11th century. the monk begins to work on his compositions Nestor. The chronicle was his final fundamental work. Before that he created “Reading about the lives of Boris and Gleb”. In it, as in "To the word..." Hilarion, as later in the Tale of Bygone Years, the ideas of the unity of Rus' are heard, and tribute is paid to its defenders and guardians. Already at that time, writers were worried about the growing political hostility in the Russian lands, in which they discerned a harbinger of future bloody strife.

Literature of the 12th century continues the traditions of Russian works of the 11th century. New ecclesiastical and secular works are being created, marked by a vivid form, richness of thoughts, and broad generalizations; new genres of literature emerge.

In his declining years, Vladimir Monomakh writes his "Teaching to Children", which became one of the favorite readings of Russian people of the early Middle Ages. Describing purely Russian affairs and Russian political passions, endless wars with the enemies of Rus', Monomakh constantly relied on Christian universal values. In them he found the answer to the questions that tormented him, and in them he drew moral support. He begins to quote the Psalter with immortal words: “Why are you sad, my soul? Why are you embarrassing me? Trust in God, for I believe in Him.". His "Teaching"- this is a hymn to the righteous, rejection of evil and crafty people, faith in the triumph of good, in the meaninglessness and doom of evil.

At the beginning of the 12th century. one of Monomakh's associates, Abbot Daniel, creates "Hegumen Daniel's Walk to Holy Places". The pious Russian man went to the Holy Sepulcher and made a long and difficult journey - to Constantinople, then through the islands of the Aegean Sea to the island of Crete, from there to Palestine and to Jerusalem, where at that time there was a state of the Crusaders led by King Baldwin. Daniel described in detail his entire journey, spoke about his stay at the court of the King of Jerusalem, about the campaign with him against the Arabs. Daniel prayed at the Holy Sepulcher, placed a lamp there from the entire Russian land: near the Sepulcher of Christ he sang fifty liturgies “for the Russian princes and for all Christians.”

AND "Teaching", And "Walking" were the first genres of their kind in Russian literature.

XII - early XIII century. They gave many other bright religious and secular works that added to the treasury of Russian culture. Among them "Word" And "Prayer" Daniil Zatochnik, about whom little is known. Having been in captivity and having experienced a number of other everyday dramas, he reflects on the meaning of life, on a harmonious person, on an ideal ruler. Addressing his prince in "Prayers", Daniel says that a real person must combine the strength of Samson, the courage of Alexander the Great, the intelligence of Joseph, the wisdom of Solomon, the cunning of David. Appeal to biblical stories and ancient history helps him convey his ideas to the addressee. A person, according to the author, must strengthen his heart with beauty and wisdom, help his neighbor in sorrow, show mercy to those in need, and resist evil. The humanistic line of ancient Russian literature firmly asserts itself here too.

Author of the mid-12th century. Metropolitan of Kyiv Klimenty Smolyatich in his "Message", referring to Greek philosophers Aristotle, Plato, based on the work of Homer, also recreates the image of a highly moral person, alien to the lust for power, love of money and vanity.

IN "The Parable of the Human Soul"(end of the 12th century) Bishop Kirill of the city of Turov, based on the Christian worldview, gives his interpretation of the meaning human existence, talks about the need for a constant connection between soul and body. At the same time he puts in "Parable" issues that are quite topical for Russian reality, reflects on the relationship between church and secular authorities, defends the national-patriotic idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land, which was especially important at a time when some princes began to implement centralizing policies.

Simultaneously with these works, where religious and secular motives were constantly intertwined, copyists in monasteries, churches, princely and boyar houses diligently copied church service books, prayers, collections of church traditions, biographies of saints, and ancient theological literature. All this wealth of religious and theological thought also formed an integral part of general Russian culture.

The first Russian churches of the 11th - 12th centuries

Architecture. They say that architecture is the soul of the people, embodied in stone. This applies to Rus' with some amendments. For many years, Rus' was a wooden country, and its pagan chapels, fortresses, towers, and huts were built of wood. In wood, Russian people, like the peoples who lived next to the Eastern Slavs, expressed their perception of structural beauty, a sense of proportion, and the merging of architectural structures with the surrounding nature. If wooden architecture goes back mainly to pagan Rus', then stone architecture is associated with already Christian Russia. Western Europe, which since ancient times built both temples and dwellings of stone, did not know such a transition.

Russian wooden architecture was characterized by multi-tiered buildings, crowning them with turrets and towers, and the presence of various types of extensions - cages, passages, vestibules. Intricate artistic wood carving was a traditional decoration of Russian wooden buildings. This tradition continues to this day.

The world of Byzantium, the world of Christianity brought new construction experience and traditions to Rus'. Rus' adopted the construction of churches in the image of the cross-baptismal temple of the Greeks. A square, dissected by four pillars, forms its basis; rectangular cells adjacent to the dome space form an architectural cross. But the Greek masters who arrived in Rus' from the time of Vladimir, as well as the Russian craftsmen who worked with them, applied this model to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture, familiar to the Russian eye and dear to the heart. If first Russian churches, including the Tithe Church of the end of the 10th century, were built by Greek masters in strict accordance with Byzantine traditions, the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv reflected a combination of Slavic and Byzantine traditions. Thirteen domes of the new temple were placed on the base of the cross-domed church. This step pyramid of St. Sophia Cathedral resurrected the style of Russian wooden architecture.

St. Sophia Cathedral, created at the time of the establishment and rise of Rus' under Yaroslav the Wise, showed that construction is also politics. With this temple, Rus' challenged Byzantium, its recognized shrine, the St. Sophia Cathedral of Constantinople. In the 11th century St. Sophia Cathedrals grew in other large centers of Rus' - Novgorod, Polotsk, and each of them laid claim to its own throne, independent from Kyiv, just like Chernigov, where the monumental Transfiguration Cathedral was built. All over Rus', multi-domed churches with thick walls and small windows were built - evidence of power and beauty.

In the 12th century, according to the figurative expression of one art critic, Russian single-domed warrior temples marched throughout Rus', replacing the previous pyramids. The dome rose up on a powerful, massive square. This became the Dmitrov Cathedral in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, the Cathedral of St. George in Yuryev-Polsky.

Architecture reached great prosperity during the reign of Andrei Bogolyubsky. His name is associated with the buildings of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, the white stone palace beautifully located on the steep bank of the Klyazma in the village of Bogolyubovo, the Golden Gate in Vladimir - a powerful white stone cube crowned with a golden-domed church. Under him, a miracle of Russian architecture was created - the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. The prince built a church not far from his chambers after the death of his beloved son Izyaslav. This small single-domed church has become a poem made of stone, which harmoniously combines modest beauty, quiet sadness, and enlightened contemplation of architectural lines.

Andrey's brother Vsevolod continued construction activities. His masters left to posterity the wonderful Dmitrovsky Cathedral in Vladimir - majestic and at the same time modest.

In the XII - early XIII centuries. Temples were built in Novgorod and Smolensk, Chernigov and Galich, Pskov and Novgorod-Volynsky. A characteristic feature of Russian architecture is the stone carving decorating buildings. We see this amazing art on the walls of cathedrals in Vladimir-Suzdal Rus', Novgorod, and other Russian cities.

Another feature that was common to all Russian architecture of that time was the organic combination of architectural structures with the natural landscape. Look at the churches of that time and you will understand what we are talking about.

Old Russian art

Art. Old Russian art- painting, sculpture, music - also experienced tangible changes with the adoption of Christianity. Pagan Rus' knew all these types of art, but in a purely pagan, folk expression. Ancient woodcarvers and stone cutters created wooden and stone sculptures of pagan gods and spirits. Painters painted the walls of pagan temples, made sketches of magic masks, which were then made by artisans; musicians, playing string and woodwind instruments, entertained tribal leaders and entertained the common people.

The Christian Church introduced completely different content into these types of art. Church art is subordinated to a higher goal - the glorification of God, the exploits of the apostles, saints, and church leaders. If in pagan art the flesh triumphed over the spirit and everything earthly, personifying nature was affirmed, then church art sang the victory of the spirit over the flesh and affirmed high feats human soul for the sake of the moral principles of Christianity. This was expressed in the fact that painting, music, and the art of sculpture were created mainly according to church canons, where everything that contradicted the highest Christian principles was swept aside. Asceticism and rigor in painting (icon painting, mosaic, fresco), the sublimity of Greek church prayers and chants, the temple itself, which became a place of prayerful communication between people, were characteristic of Byzantine art, which became a model for Russian Christian art.

Transferred to Russian soil, canonical in content, brilliant in its execution, the art of Byzantium collided with the pagan worldview of the Eastern Slavs, with their joyful cult of nature - the sun, spring, light, with their completely earthly ideas about good and evil, sins and virtues. And from the very first years of the transfer of Byzantine church art to Rus', it experienced the full power of Russian folk culture and folk aesthetic ideas.

It was already discussed above that a single-domed Byzantine temple in Rus' in the 11th century. transformed into a multi-domed pyramid. The same thing happened with painting. Already in the 11th century. the strict ascetic manner of Byzantine icon painting was transformed under the brush of Russian artists into portraits close to life, although Russian icons bore all the features of a conventional icon-painting face. At this time, the Pechersk monk-painter Llimpius became famous. Contemporaries said about him that he “he was very cunning to paint icons”. Icon painting was Alimpiy’s main means of existence, but he spent the money he earned in a very unique way: with one part he bought everything that was necessary for his craft, gave the other to the poor, and donated the third to the Pechersky Monastery.

Along with icon painting, fresco painting and mosaics developed. The frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv show the writing style of Greek and Russian masters, their commitment to human warmth, integrity and simplicity. On the walls of the cathedral we see images of saints, and the family of Yaroslav the Wise, and images of Russian buffoons, and animals. Beautiful icon paintings, frescoes, and mosaics filled other churches in Kyiv. Known for their great artistic power are the mosaics of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery with their depiction of the apostles, saints who have lost their Byzantine severity; their faces became softer and rounder. Later, the Novgorod school of painting took shape. Its characteristic features were clarity of idea, reality of image, and accessibility. From the 12th century Wonderful creations of Novgorod painters have reached us: the icon "Angel Golden Hair", where, despite all the conventionality of the angel’s appearance, one can feel his trembling and beautiful soul. On the icon "Savior Not Made by Hands" Christ, with his expressive arch of eyebrows, appears as a formidable, all-understanding judge of the human race. On the icon "Assumption of the Virgin Mary" the faces of the apostles depicted all the sorrow of loss.

The wide distribution of icon painting and fresco painting was also characteristic of Chernigov, Rostov, Suzdal, and later Vladimir-on-Klyazma, where wonderful frescoes depicting « Last Judgment» , decorated Dmitrovsky Cathedral.

At the beginning of the 13th century. The Yaroslavl school of icon painting became famous. Many excellent icons were painted in the monasteries and churches of Yaroslavl. Especially famous among them is the so-called "Yaroslavl Oranta", depicting the Virgin Mary. Its prototype was the mosaic image of the Virgin Mary in the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the work of Greek masters, who depicted a stern, powerful woman stretching out her hands over humanity. Yaroslavl artists made the image of the Mother of God warmer, more humane. This is, first of all, a mother-intercessor, bringing help and compassion to people.

Over the course of many centuries of Russian history, the art of wood carving and, later, stone carving was constantly developing and improving there. Wooden carvings generally became characteristic feature dwellings of townspeople and peasants, wooden churches.

White stone carving, especially from the time of Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest, clearly expressed in the decoration of palaces and cathedrals, became a remarkable feature of ancient Russian art in general. Utensils and dishes were famous for their beautiful carvings. The Russians showed themselves most fully in the art of carvers. folk traditions, Russians’ ideas about beauty and grace.

Elegant jewelry and true masterpieces were created by ancient Russian jewelers - gold and silversmiths. They made bracelets, earrings, pendants, buckles, tiaras, medallions, decorated with gold, silver, enamel, precious stones utensils, dishes, weapons. Icon frames, as well as books, were decorated with special care and love. An example would be a skillfully trimmed leather and jewelry setting of the Gospel, created by order of the Kyiv mayor Ostromir during the time of Yaroslav the Wise, the so-called "Ostromir Gospel"- the oldest Russian book that has survived to this day.

Earrings made by a Russian artisan (11th-12th centuries) still inspire admiration. They are rings with semicircular shields, to which six silver cones with balls and 500 rings with a diameter of 0.06 cm made of wire with a diameter of 0.02 cm are soldered. Tiny grains of silver with a diameter of 0.04 cm are attached to the rings. How people did it, who did not have magnifying devices, it is difficult to imagine.

An integral part of the art of Rus' was the art of music and singing. IN "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" the legendary storyteller-singer Boyan is mentioned, who “put” his fingers on living strings, and they “the princes themselves rumbled glory”. On the frescoes of the St. Sophia Cathedral we see images of musicians playing woodwind and string instruments - lute and harp. The talented singer Mitus in Galich is known from chronicle reports. It is known that at the courts of Russian princes, during feasts, those present were entertained by singers, storytellers, and guslars.

Folklore. An important component of ancient Russian culture was folklore - songs, tales, epics, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fairy tales. Wedding, drinking, and funeral songs reflected many features of the life of people of that time. Thus, ancient wedding songs also spoke about the time when brides were kidnapped, "kidnapped"(as a rule, with their consent) or ransomed, and in the songs of Christian times they talked about the consent of both the bride and parents to marriage.

The whole world of Russian life is revealed in epics. Their main character is a hero, a defender of the people. The heroes had enormous physical strength. Thus, it was said about the beloved Russian hero Ilya Muromets: “Wherever he turns, there are streets, wherever he turns, there are alleys.”. At the same time, he was a very peace-loving hero who took up arms only when there was no other choice. The people's heroes also possessed enormous magical power, wisdom, and cunning. So, the hero Volkhv Vseslavovich could turn into a gray falcon, a gray wolf.

In the epic images of enemies one can also discern the real foreign policy opponents of Rus', the fight against which has deeply entered the consciousness of the people. Under the name of Tugarin Zmeevich one can see a generalized image of the Polovtsians with their khan Tugorkan. Under the name Zhidovin, Khazaria is deduced, where Judaism was the state religion. Russian epic heroes faithfully served the epic prince Vladimir. They fulfilled his requests for the defense of the Fatherland; he turned to them at crucial times. The relationship between the heroes and the prince was not easy. There were grievances and misunderstandings here. But all of them - both the prince and the heroes - in the end decided on one common cause - the cause of the people. Scientists have shown that under the name of Prince Vladimir the generalized image of both Vladimir Svyatoslavich - a warrior against the Pechenegs, and Vladimir Monomakh - the defender of Rus' from the Polovtsians, and the appearance of other princes - brave, wise, cunning - merged. And some epics reflected the legendary times of the struggle of the ancestors of the Eastern Slavs with the Cimmerians, Sarmatians, and Scythians. The epics telling about the ancient heroes of those times are akin to the epic of Homer and the epic of other Indo-European peoples.

Life in Kievan Rus of the 12th century

Life of the people. The culture of a people is inextricably linked with its way of life, everyday life, and the way of life of the people, determined by the level of economic development of the country, is closely connected with cultural processes.

People lived both in large cities for their time, numbering tens of thousands of people, and in villages with several dozen households, and villages in which two or three households were grouped.

Kyiv remained the largest city for a long time. In terms of its scale and many stone buildings - temples, palaces - it competed with other European capitals of that time. No wonder the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise, Anna Yaroslavna, who married in France and came to Paris in the 11th century, was surprised by the wretchedness of the French capital compared to Kiev. Here the golden-domed temples shone with their domes, the palaces of Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, Vsevolod Yaroslavich amazed with their grace, the St. Sophia Cathedral, the Golden Gate - a symbol of the victory of Russian weapons, surprised with its monumentality and wonderful frescoes. And not far from the princely palace there were bronze horses taken by Vladimir from Chersonesus; in the old Yaroslavl city there were courtyards of prominent boyars, and here on the mountain there were also the houses of rich merchants, other prominent citizens, and the highest clergy. Houses were decorated with carpets and expensive Greek fabrics.

In the palaces, rich boyar mansions, a complex life went on - warriors, servants were located here, and servants crowded around. From here the administration of principalities, cities, and villages took place; here they judged and tried, and here tributes and taxes were brought. Feasts often took place in the entryway and spacious griddles, where overseas wine and our own native wine flowed like a river. "honey", servants served huge dishes of meat and game. Women sat at the table equally with men. Women generally took an active part in management, housekeeping, and other matters. There are many known women who are figures of this kind: Princess Olga, Monomakh’s sister Yanka, mother of Daniil Galitsky, wife of Andrei Bogolyubsky, etc. At the same time, food and small money were distributed to the poor on behalf of the owner.

The favorite pastimes of rich people were falconry and hound hunting. Races, tournaments, and various games were organized for the common people. An integral part of Russian life, especially in the north, was the bathhouse.

Below, on the banks of the Dnieper, a cheerful Kiev trade was noisy, where products and products were sold not only from all over Rus', but also from all over the world, including India and Baghdad. Down the slopes of the mountains towards Podol were various types of houses - from good wooden houses to poor dugouts - the dwellings of artisans and working people. Hundreds of large and small ships were crowded at the berths of the Dnieper and Pochaina.

A motley, multilingual crowd scurried along the streets of the city. Boyars and warriors walked here in expensive silk clothes, cloaks decorated with fur and gold, and beautiful leather boots. The buckles of their cloaks were made of gold and silver. Merchants also appeared in good-quality linen shirts and woolen caftans, and poorer people scurried about in homespun canvas shirts and portages. Rich women decorated themselves with gold and silver chains, necklaces made of beads, which were very loved in Rus', earrings, jewelry made of gold and silver, decorated with enamel, and niello. But there were also simpler, cheaper jewelry, made from inexpensive stones and simple metal - copper, bronze. Poor people wore them with pleasure. Even then, women wore traditional Russian clothes - sundresses, and covered their heads with ubruses (shawls).

Temples, palaces, wooden houses and semi-dugouts stood on the outskirts in other Russian cities, there were noisy trades there, and on holidays, smartly dressed residents filled the narrow streets.
His life, full of work and anxiety, flowed in Russian villages and hamlets, in log huts, in semi-dugouts with heater stoves in the corner. There people persistently fought for existence, plowed new lands, raised livestock, beekeepers, hunted, defended themselves from "dashing" people, and in the south - from nomads, wooden dwellings that had been burned after enemy raids were rebuilt again and again. Moreover, plowmen often went out into the field armed with spears, clubs, bows and arrows to fight off the Polovtsian patrol. On long winter evenings, in the light of splinters, women spun yarn, men drank intoxicating drinks, honey, remembered the days gone by, composed and sang songs, listened to the storytellers and storytellers of epics.

Lion