Christianity arose in the 1st century. AD in the Roman province of Judea. The time of its occurrence was characterized deep crisis experienced by the Roman Empire. In Rome itself, internal decay reigned, terrible emptiness and moral depravity at the top. The atmosphere of uncertainty and expectation of the end of the world favored the emergence of various cults of Eastern religions (the cult Egyptian gods- Isis and Osiris, the Iranian god - Mithras, etc.), in which those elements were emphasized that Christianity later borrowed from them - the suffering of the dying God and his resurrection, hope for afterlife. This faith was brought by a new religion - Christianity , which, among other things, addressed all people, without distinction of their nationality and class, as equal before God. Christianity was born in the womb Jewish religion, but soon deviated from it.

Judaism - the first monotheistic religion (recognizing one God), which arose more than 3 thousand years ago, the main postulates of which were the following:

• - Jews - chosen people, since God, through Moses, gave them a law, having accepted which the Jews entered into special relationship with God, entered into an agreement with him, which provided them with divine protection if all his instructions were observed;
• - according to the Torah, history is purposeful, its essence lies not in the destruction of the originally created perfection, but in the movement towards its highest point, towards the establishment of the Kingdom of God on Earth, which will lead to rewards for good deeds, to the resurrection of the righteous;
• - faith in the coming of the Messiah - a savior sent by Jehovah God to establish justice. The Old Testament contained a prediction that the Messiah would come from the line of King David.

Jesus Christ (Christ in Greek means “messiah”) was such a messiah for his Christian followers. The Jews put him on trial as an impostor. This led to the identification of Christianity as a special religion, which added to the holy books of the Jews, which Christians began to call the Old or Old Testament New Testament Jesus Christ, not recognized by the Jews.

New Testament - the main source of judgment about the political thought of early Christianity. It consists of four Gospels- from Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; the Acts of the Apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (better known by the Greek name “Apocalypse”). Initially, Christianity condemned slave-owning Rome. Thus, in “Apocalypse,” written in the 60s. I century AD, a terrible picture of the end of the World is drawn and Last Judgment, which contained severe criticism of Rome.

Christians were waiting for the coming of the Messiah, Christ the Redeemer, who, in a battle with the “beast-emperor,” would crush the kingdom of evil, and the thousand-year reign of justice promised by the prophets would be established.

In anticipation of the imminent coming, Christians sought to isolate themselves from the evil reality in their communities, where they led a common life according to customs directly opposite to those of Rome.

Basic principles of Christianity.

• - in the community the idea of ​​God's chosenness of individual peoples was overcome;
• - the equality of all believers was proclaimed;
• - unlike Rome, where the attitude towards physical labor was negative (it was considered a disgrace, the lot of slaves), in the Christian community everyone was obliged to work. “If anyone does not want to work, do not eat,” it is said in the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Thessalonians (2 Thess. 3:10);
• - Roman law protected the interests of private property; in the communities of the first Christians everything was common;
• - distribution according to work or according to need: “They distributed it to everyone, depending on the need of each” and “there was no one in need among them” (Acts 4: 32-35);
• - in Rome the cult of luxury dominated, among Christians the cult of restraint. The first Christians condemned wealth, linking it with the oppression of the poor. Acquisitiveness was declared incompatible with faith in God: “You cannot serve God and mammon” (Matthew 6:24; Luke 16:13).

These principles allow us to speak of “Christian communism,” the peculiarity of which was that it was “closed” in religious communities, but was not universal, and was of a consumer rather than productive nature. As M. Weber noted, “a genuine charismatic desire for the salvation of one’s own soul must be apolitical in its essence. Earthly orders (the state) were recognized as independent in relation to Christian dogmas, characterized either as devilish or absolutely unimportant for the salvation of the soul - “render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s”” (Matthew 22:21). The political and legal reality was condemned.

In the I and I centuries. AD Christian communities spread throughout the Roman Empire. The ranks of adherents new religion grew, they also began to be replenished with people from the propertied and educated strata. This led to changes in the social composition, organizational principles and ideology of Christian communities. At the same time, the evolution of Christianity was predetermined by the unrealizability of the proclaimed ideal, disappointment in hopes for the imminent arrival of the Messiah.

By the middle of the 2nd century. a church apparatus was formed. The leadership of the communities passed into the hands of bishops, presbyters, and clerks, who formed the clergy (clergy) standing above the believers.

The original teachings of Christians underwent significant changes. The ideas of the “imminent coming of the Messiah” and the “millennial kingdom” were replaced by dogmas already former advent, the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ, as well as “retribution after death.”

Universal equality was interpreted as equality before God in universal sin before God. Preaching “love for enemies,” the clergy declared the condemnation of the Roman Empire a grave sin.

Gradually there was an adaptation to political reality: it was justified principle of loyalty to the existing government and the principle of humility. Thus, the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Romans says: “Let every soul be subject to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, but the authorities that exist are established by God.”

This position became fundamental for Christianity and opened the way for it first to be legitimized, recognized along with other religions (Edict of Milan, or Milan, Edict of 313 by the emperors Constantine and Licinius), and soon to the transformation of Christianity into the dominant religion (324). Constantine became the first Christian emperor. The Church sanctified his power, and a union of throne and altar arose. The persecuted church became dominant. In 380, under Emperor Theodosius the Great (379-395), Christianity became the state religion (“Edict of the Catholic Faith”).

At the beginning of the 4th century. AD The Christian Church changed its social composition. If previously the bulk of its followers were slaves and proletarians, now they were representatives of the middle class and aristocracy. State Church became universal - Catholic or ecumenical. Monopoly christian church on ideology, politics, and subsequently on the law established after the recognition of Christianity as official religion, could not help but be criticized. Currents that deviated from official dogmas Christian religion, got names heresies (translated from Greek - teaching).

Heresies had their own epistemological and socio-political roots. The epistemological aspect came from a natural desire thinking man explain the basic dogmas using reason Christian faith(about the trinity of the deity and the God-manhood of Christ). The socio-political basis of heresies was determined by the discontent of the common people, who suffered from exploitation and violence.

The characterization of the content of heresies can only be specific historical, since at different stages they differed significantly. However, some common features can be identified: all heresies saw an ideal in early Christianity, only the more moderate of them were limited to efforts to reorganize religious and church life, and the more radical - to all spheres of social life. Heresies arose in the centers of intellectual life of society, which coincided with the centers of development of crafts and trade, and therefore socio-political life.

By the IV-V centuries. heresies concentrated in the Eastern Mediterranean. The developing cities of the East produced a rich range of heresies: Arianism(Alexandria), Nestorianism(Constantinople), Donatism(Carthage), etc. The first heresies arose on the basis of the so-called Trinitarian disputes, i.e. polemics on the interpretation of the dogma of the trinity of the deity. The official church defended the cornerstone dogma of the Christian faith about the holy trinity (the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are the “same” triune deity), and its opponents argued that God the Son, i.e. Jesus Christ cannot be equal to God the Father, but only similar to him (Arians), and some of the heretics saw in Christ only the human race (Nestorians). Politically, the first heresies, although sometimes linked with a broad popular movement (Donatism), more often reflected passive social protest, ethical contradictions and separatist aspirations of individual provinces of the Eastern Prefecture.

The second significant surge in heretical teachings is associated with the rise of crafts and trade in the cities of Western and Southern Europe in the 11th-12th centuries. In the western regions of Bulgaria (now Bosnia) a movement arose Bogomilov(bogomolets); appeared in Lombardy, northern Italy paterenes; in Lyon, southern France - Valdeis(followers of Pierre Waldo, a rich merchant who gave his property to the poor), in Languedoc, also in the south of France - Albigenses. All these heresies went down in history under the general name "Cathars"(clean).

Bogomils drew attention to the fact that already at the very beginning of the New Testament it is clearly said about two otherworldly forces: the good God Christ opposes evil devil, to whom, as it is said there, all the kingdoms of the world belong. From a comparison of these ideas with the text: “No one can serve two masters... cannot serve God and mammon (wealth),” it follows immutably that the devil (an evil god) is wealth. The conclusions from this were quite specific: in the Bogomil legends it is described that the devil took a note of servitude from Adam when he, expelled from Paradise, began to plow the land - for himself and for all his offspring, since the land was appropriated by him, the devil. Since then, the peasants have been in bondage to the servants of the devil, who seized the arable land.

In terms of their theological content, the Cathar heresies were aimed at criticizing the foundations of Catholic dogma. Continuing the traditions of the Arians, the Cathars opposed the orthodox interpretation of the trilitary issue. From the Nestorians they inherited very high demands for peace. The medieval clergy did not meet the moral requirements of the Cathars, so their role as a mediator between God and the laity was not recognized. A new element of the teaching was the denial of church cult and the seven Christian sacraments, the demand for a cheap church - without church tithes, without a large clergy, without large feudal property.

To eradicate heresies, the Christian Church organized a series of crusades (the Albigensian Wars, the first third of the 13th century), and established inquisition and "mendicant" orders ( Dominicans and Franciscans)(late XII - early XIII century). Finally, trying to knock the formidable weapon out of the hands of the heretics - Holy Bible, Pope Gregory IX issued a bull (1231) prohibiting lay people from reading the Bible.

In the second half of the XIV - XV centuries. a new rise of religious dissidence began. In the heretical movements, two independent movements clearly emerged: burgher And peasant-plebeian heresy. Burgher heresy expressed the interests of the townspeople and part of the lower nobility, was directed mainly against the priesthood, whose wealth and political position it attacked. This heresy demanded the restoration of the simple structure of the early Christian church, the abolition of monks, prelates, and the Roman Curia. Its prominent representatives were John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384), doctor of theology and professor at Oxford University in England, and Czech theologian Jan Hus (c. 1370-1415).

Heresies attracted the broad masses of the urban lower classes and the peasantry thanks to the idea of ​​​​a return to the simple structure of the early Christian church and especially the reorganization of life on the basis of social justice. Plebeian heretical movements presented by speeches wandering Lollard priests- followers of Wycliffe in England, who demanded the transfer of land to peasant communities and liberation from serfdom and tried to put into practice the simple, ascetic lifestyle of the early Christians; and Taborites led by Jan Zizka in the Czech Republic. Through the combined efforts of church and secular authorities, both the Lollards and the Taborites were defeated.

• Gospel (Greek) - good news.
• Torah (Hebrew teaching, law) - a collection of laws governing the world, a description of the universe. The Jewish Bible-Torah in Hebrew includes the Written Torah (the Pentateuch of Moses, the Books of the Prophets and the Scriptures) and the Oral Torah (Talmud) - a commentary on the Written Torah. To the Torah in in a broad sense the words also include the Code of Jewish Laws Shulchan Aruch, the books of Kabbalah and commentaries on them. The Written Torah has almost completely entered into Christian Bible and partially, in the form of distorted retellings, gems, ideas and laws - in the Koran.

In the Christian religion, as in other monotheistic religions, there were many heretical (disagreeing with official dogma) teachings. They began to appear from the time Christianity became officially recognized state religion, and accompanied him throughout history. The emergence of heresies was explained by the fact that medieval Christianity expressed the religious consciousness of different social groups, both the feudal elite and the broad masses. Therefore, any dissatisfaction with the feudal system inevitably took the form of theological heresy. “In order to be able to attack existing social relations, it was necessary to strip them of their aura of holiness.”

The development of mass heretical movements in Western Europe was associated with the emergence and flourishing of cities. Sharp social contrasts between townspeople and feudal lords, between different property strata of the urban population, the active political life and organization of townspeople created favorable conditions for the emergence of heretical teachings. These teachings, different in nature, expressed the protest of the urban and peasant masses against the dominant feudal system. “Revolutionary opposition to feudalism... appears, according to the conditions of the time, sometimes in the form of mysticism, sometimes in the form of open heresy, sometimes in the form of an armed uprising.”

By their nature, medieval heresies were divided into burgher and peasant-plebeian. Burgher heresies expressed the protest of small urban owners against the feudal order, and above all against church institutions that hindered the development of cities and their economy. They demanded the elimination of the privileges of the clergy and the deprivation of their worldly benefits, the secularization of church property, and the simplification and reduction in cost of church rituals. Their ideal was the early Christian "apostolic church." These were moderate heresies that did not deny in principle the existing feudal system. Therefore, the ideas of the burgher heresy often found support among certain groups of feudal lords interested in the secularization of church property and limiting the influence of the clergy and the papal curia.

The peasant-plebeian heretical movement went much further, expressing the aspirations of the lower classes and demanding the establishment of equality between people. The most radical egalitarian heresies represented the ideology of the masses who fought with arms against feudal oppression (“Apostolic Brothers”, Lollards, Taborites). Early heretical movements often combined elements of both directions (Albigenses).

There were significant dogmatic differences between individual heretical teachings. However, all of them were united by a sharply negative attitude towards the Catholic clergy led by the pope and opposition to them from biblical shepherds. The sale of indulgences and inequality in communion were especially harshly attacked. The heretics called the church the “harlot of Babylon” and the pope the “vicar of Satan.” In contrast to the hierarchical church, they created their own simple religious organization and introduced simplified rituals. The heretics recognized the Gospel as the only source of faith and completely rejected the “sacred tradition” (the writings of the church fathers, the decrees of councils, papal bulls). The idea of ​​“apostolic poverty” was very popular, turning into strict asceticism among some heretics. Mystical ideas based on a special interpretation of biblical prophecies, in particular visions of the Apocalypse, were widespread. The heresiarchs Joachim of Flora and Dolcino predicted an inevitable revolution that should take place in the near future. The ideas of this revolution and the establishment of the “thousand-year kingdom of God” on earth (chiliasm, millenarianism) were very popular among the peasant-plebeian masses. Another moderate-burgher school of mysticism argued that “divine truth” lies in man himself, and thereby denied the need for a church. It contained elements of pantheism. But this mystical individualism led away from active struggle, into the inner world of man, awakening “visions” and religious ecstasy.

Heretical teachings undermined the authority of the church, struck a blow at Catholic dogma and contributed to the spread of free thought. Nevertheless, the heretics themselves remained fanatics of their beliefs and, like Catholics, were hostile to heterodoxy and dissent. In addition, all moderate sects limited their preaching only to demands for church reforms, replacing the “bad church” and “false faith” with the “good church” and “true faith,” distracting the masses from the active struggle against feudal oppression.

First of all, heretical movements spread in the cities of Italy, where social antagonisms were especially pronounced. In the second half of the 11th century. in Milan and other Lombard cities a pataria appeared (named after the quarter in Milan where beggars and ragpickers lived). The Patarans castigated the depravity of the morals of the clergy, calling for strict celibacy and the refusal of “servants of God” from worldly goods. At the same time, they opposed the feudal nobility and wealthy merchants. But the Patarans have not yet created a consistently developed doctrine. Another sect, founded by Arnold of Brescia (the Arnoldists), put forward a radical program of political change - the deprivation of political power by the clergy and the creation (particularly in Rome) of a purely secular republican government. This was the early burgher heresy.

The heretical movement reached its peak in the second half of the 12th–13th centuries. Its center was Southern France, which at that time was characterized by a high level of economic and cultural development. Two heretical teachings spread here - Catharism and Waldensism. Catharism (“katharos” - Greek “pure”) belonged to the dualistic heresies and was associated with Bogomilism, which spread in Bulgaria. It argued that there is an eternal struggle between good and evil in the world and good must triumph over evil. By good the Cathars understood the spiritual principle, by evil - physical world created by Satan. They also considered the existing church led by the pope to be evil. The Cathars recognized only the Gospel, completely rejecting the Old Testament. They created their own church, simple, without a hierarchy of spiritual ranks. Fellow believers were divided into two categories – “perfect” and “believers”. The first led an ascetic lifestyle and performed the functions of shepherds, the second were ordinary laymen who zealously followed the precepts of their faith. Catharism spread to the countries of Southern Europe, often in combination with other heresies, such as Waldenism.

The Waldensian heresy appeared at the end of the 12th century. in the south of France. Its founder was Peter Wald, the son of a wealthy Lyon merchant. Having renounced his wealth, he began to preach a beggarly life and asceticism. The Waldenses rejected most Christian sacraments, prayers, icons, the cult of saints, the doctrine of the sanctuary and did not recognize the church hierarchy. They preached to the "poor apostolic church." Heretics refused to pay taxes and tithes, perform military service, did not recognize the feudal court, and opposed the death penalty. The Waldenses shared some common views with the Cathars. In Southern France, both were called Albigensians (from the name of the city of Albi). In the 13th century Some of the moderate Waldenses became close to the Catholic Church and enjoyed the right to preach their views (“Catholic poor”). Another part of the Waldensians moved to Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary, where this heresy existed until the late Middle Ages. The extreme Waldensians merged with the Cathars.

In the XIV–XV centuries. radical peasant-plebeian heresies became the ideology of revolutionary uprisings. The Apostolic sect organized an uprising under the leadership of Dolcino. The early Lollard movement (represented by John Ball) played a large role in W. Tyler's rebellion. The Taborites formed an extremely revolutionary front of the Hussite movement and the Hussite wars. The burgher heresiarchs, represented by J. Wicklef and J. Hus, created the theoretical basis of the early reform movements.

The fight of the church against heresies. Inquisition, mendicant orders

Heretical ideas met with fierce resistance from catholic church. Church councils anathematized heresiarchs and their followers. To suppress mass heretical movements, the church organized crusades (the Albigensian Wars, campaigns against the Apostles, five crusades against the Hussites). At the end of the 12th century. The Inquisition (Latin inquisitio - investigation) appeared to try and punish heretics. At first the Inquisition was subordinate to the bishops. In the 13th century it became an independent institution under the supreme authority of the pope. A system of judicial investigation was created using sophisticated torture, intricate sophistry and intimidation, with the help of which confessions of guilt were extracted from victims. Espionage and denunciations were widely used, encouraged by the transfer of part of the property of the convicted to the informers. For punishment, the convicts were handed over to the secular authorities, since the church hypocritically refused to “shed blood.” Usually convicted heretics were burned at the stake. At the same time, solemn ceremonies were often held to announce the verdict of the Inquisition over a group of heretics - auto-da-fe (Spanish: “act of faith”). Repentant sinners were subjected to lifelong imprisonment. Scientists suspected of freethinking and disagreement with the canons established by the Catholic Church came under the supervision of the Inquisition.

The activities of the Inquisition represented one of the darkest pages of the Middle Ages.

The Inquisition alone could not cope with mass heretical movements. The Church tried to undermine these movements from within, to prove the “errors” of the heretics who had strayed from the path of the “true faith.” To this end, the church recognized some moderate sects and turned them into mendicant orders. So it was with the Franciscans.

The founder of this order, Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), came from a wealthy and noble Italian family. Following the example of Peter Wald, he went to beg, preaching asceticism and repentance. Francis did not deny the church and monasticism in principle, but only called on the clergy to follow the “apostolic example” - to wander and preach among the people, earning their livelihood through labor and alms. This is exactly the way of life that his followers, the “lesser brothers” (minorites), led. The Pope legalized the preaching activities of Francis and his followers and approved the Franciscan Order in 1210. The Church even declared Francis a saint. The Franciscans soon abandoned their demands for "equality" and "poverty" and became a very wealthy and influential monastic order. Their main goal was to combat the spread of heretical teachings. The monks penetrated the mass of heretics and, with their sermons and example, tried to distract them from the “errors” of heresy and return them to the fold of the Catholic Church. The Order had a strict centralized organization headed by a “general” reporting directly to the pope.

Following the example of the Franciscan Order, the Order of the Dominicans was established in 1216, the creator of which was the Spanish monk fanatic Dominic. Members of this mendicant order led a different way of life than the Franciscans. They did not dress in rags, but in the robes of scientists. These were educated “brother preachers” who took control of the educational system, and above all the theological departments in universities. From their midst came such famous pillars of scholasticism and theology as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. The main goal The Dominicans fought against heresies. Calling themselves “dogs of God” (domini canes - similar to “Dominicans”), they smashed heretics not only from university departments, but also with the weapons of the Inquisition. The tribunals of the Inquisition were usually staffed from them.

Mendicant orders were also engaged in missionary activities and founded their monasteries in non-Catholic countries. Dominicans penetrated as preachers and diplomats into eastern countries - China and Japan.

Decline of the papacy in the 14th century. Conciliar movement

At the beginning of the 14th century. The political situation in Western Europe has changed radically. The process of state centralization has advanced far. National states began to form. The royal power subordinated the feudal nobility - secular and ecclesiastical - to its rule. The clergy was deprived of privileges - exemption from taxes and the right of special ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The question arose about the creation of a national church, independent of the Roman Curia. The end of the papal theocracy was coming.

But the papacy, contrary to these new trends, tried to defend and even strengthen its theocratic claims, denying in principle the idea of ​​secular state sovereignty. It was on this basis that a fierce struggle unfolded between the French king Philip IV and Pope Boniface VIII, which ended in the victory of the king. The papal residence was moved to the French city of Avignon, and the papacy was in “captivity” for 70 years (1309–1378), following the lead of the French kings.

With the return of the papal throne to Rome came " great schism"(schism), when there were two or even three popes on the throne at the same time. During this struggle, accompanied by mutual curses and anathemas, the papacy lost its former prestige, Catholic hierarchy was plunged into a protracted crisis. At this time, a conciliar movement developed within the Catholic Church, which pursued the goal of limiting papal autocracy and subordinating the pope by an ecumenical council. The conciliar movement found active support from Western European monarchies, which sought to free themselves from papal interference and establish secular state supremacy. The French king Charles VII, on the basis of conciliar decrees, issued in 1438 the “Pragmatic Sanction”, which proclaimed the principles of the “Gallican Church” and the supremacy of councils in matters of faith. The right of appointment to church positions was recognized for the king and the jurisdiction of the clergy before state courts was established. Similar measures were taken in other countries, for example in England and in individual German principalities.

One of the main tasks of the conciliar movement and the reason for it was the desire of the Catholic hierarchy to overcome schism and strengthen the authority of the church. The Council of Pisa in 1409 removed both popes - Avignon and Rome - and elected a new pope - Alexander V. However, this did not eliminate the schism. Instead of two, there are now three dads.

At the next Council of Constance (1414–1418), in addition to eliminating the schism, issues of general reform of the church and the fight against the “Hussite heresy” were discussed. But the council did not essentially solve any of these problems. Jan Hus was condemned by the council and burned at the stake. However, in the Czech Republic a nationwide movement arose against the Catholic Church and German dominance, which ultimately won. A resolution was adopted on the supremacy of the council over the pope. John XXIII was deposed. As it turned out, in the past this high priest (Baltasaro Cossa) was a pirate and a counterfeiter. The council elected Martin V as pope. But the schism continued, since one of the former popes, Benedict XIII, did not renounce his rank. In 1431, a council was convened in Basel, which lasted intermittently until 1449. Its success was the conclusion of a compromise agreement with the moderate Hussites.

Pope Eugene IV disobeyed the Council of Basel and convened his own special council in Ferrara. In 1439 this cathedral was moved to Florence, where a union was concluded between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The Byzantine emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople hoped to receive military assistance from the West against the Turks and made great concessions to Catholicism and the pope. But the population and a significant part of the clergy rejected the union. It was carried out later only in the western regions of Ukraine and Belarus, which were under the rule of Lithuania and Poland.

The schism continued, and only at the Council of Lausanne (1449) was an agreement reached to restore unity: the last antipope Felix V renounced his claims to the throne and Nicholas V remained the sole head of the church.

The liquidation of the “great schism” did not lead to the restoration of the former power of the Roman Curia. The Pope increasingly lost his role as the universal head of the Catholic Church and turned into one of the ordinary princes of Central Italy. But the papacy still remained the organizing force of Catholic reaction. The Roman Curia led the Inquisition, which brutally suppressed progressive anti-Catholic movements. The papacy played an equally reactionary role in historical fate Italy. Owning the center of the country, it stood in the way of its national and political unification.

Church jurisdiction. Inquisition

One of the most important privileges of the church was the right to its own jurisdiction, its own court. Persons belonging to the church, whether monks or peasants who worked on monastic land, had to be tried in ecclesiastical courts (with some exceptions) not only in civil disputes, but also for criminal offenses.

The beginning of special ecclesiastical jurisdiction dates back to the Roman era. Standing outside the law, Christian communities themselves had to resolve disputes that arose among them, without resorting either to the law of the hated pagans or to their despised judges. This practice was then confirmed in the "Epistle" attributed to the Apostle Paul: it prohibits the submission of legal disputes to the resolution of "infidels."

Based on a very vague provision that all crimes related to sin are subject to the judgment of the church, the latter arrogated to itself jurisdiction over such crimes as heresy, apostasy, witchcraft, sacrilege (theft of church property, as well as violence against a priest), violation adultery, incest, bigamy, perjury, slander, forgery, false oath, usury.

Since contracts were very often sealed with religious oaths, the church declared its competence the area of ​​obligatory relations, insisting that any obligation, even if it is contrary to law, must be fulfilled for the salvation of the soul of the obligor.

In the field of marriage and family relations, the Christian Church has arrogated to itself the right to control the distribution of property between legal heirs and the execution of wills. The church has learned to derive considerable benefits from all this. She took over police duties and closely monitored how her flock lived. Anyone who dared to criticize the church or its ministers, even the slightest, was threatened with excommunication.

If the excommunicated person did not repent, the “holy inquisition”, a special court created to deal with “heretics” - apostates and dissidents, was sent for him. In 1232, the Pope ordered that all cases of heresy be handled by the order of Dominican monks. In 1252, the Inquisition was authorized to use torture. Independent of all local authorities, not recognizing any law other than its own, the Inquisition becomes a formidable force.

With the appearance of an inquisitor in a particular city, residents were ordered to appear and report persons whom they suspected of apostasy. Anyone who evaded denunciation was declared excommunicated. The Inquisition could also initiate persecution based on rumors.

In the inquisition process, the same person conducted the preliminary investigation and passed the verdict. Thus, instead of checking the evidence and evaluating it, the court only confirmed the already established opinion.

Responsible only for gentleness, but not for cruelty, the investigator spared no effort in order to obtain a confession from the accused. The more tricky the question, the sooner it could confuse the person being interrogated, the better it was considered.

The negotiations were, as a rule, secret, accompanied by a gloomy, terrifying ritual.

If it was not possible to obtain a quick confession, the investigation ended and torture was resorted to. The Inquisitor was not bound by her method or time. He began torture at any stage of the process and ended it when he found it necessary, or when he achieved a confession, or when his victim died, unable to bear the torture. At the same time, the torture protocol certainly indicated that if the tortured person “broke any organ” or died, he would be to blame.

Did the inquisitors understand that torture could force a false confession? Without a doubt. But they needed to create an environment of general horror that would allow them to rule unlimitedly. One of the most cruel persecutors of the spirit, Conrad of Marbourg (13th century), believed that it was better to kill 60 innocent people than to let one guilty person escape. This inquisitor sent hundreds of people to their deaths on simple suspicion. Torture also corrupted the judges themselves: cruelty became a habit.

The confession was followed by the so-called reconciliation with the church, which consisted in the remission of sins. The accused had to confirm the interrogation protocol, pointing out that the confession he made was voluntary and not forced (after torture).

If they refused to do this, as well as if the testimony given during the investigation changed, the accused was again recognized (and this time definitively) as having “fallen away” from the church, for which he was certainly subject to being burned alive.

Confession helped avoid burning at the stake, but condemned him to life imprisonment. Denial of guilt led to the stake. At the same time, it was believed that the church “does not shed blood.” Acquittal was rare, but even in this case the person was included in the category of suspicious, and his life was surrounded by hardships until his death. A new suspicion - and nothing could save him from prison or painful death.

Among the political trials that took on a religious shell, the trial of Joan of Arc, a girl of the people, the heroine of the Hundred Years' War between France and England (XV century), who was burned at the stake by decision of the corrupt French clergy, stands out especially.



Introduction

general characteristics political thought of the European Middle Ages

The idea of ​​theocratic domination in the teachings of Augustine

Papacy and Empire

Medieval heresies

Political teachings of Thomas Aquinas

Views of the English philosopher W. Occam

Conclusion

Introduction

The Middle Ages is the name given to the historical period between the ancient world and modern times. The term “Middle Ages” was first used by Italian humanists in the 15th century. to characterize those centuries that divided their times and the times of pagan antiquity. According to tradition, the collapse of the Western Roman Empire is considered the beginning of the medieval era, and its end is the 14th century. Period from the 15th century until the middle of the 17th century, called the Renaissance and Reformation, is attributed either to late Middle Ages, or by the beginning of the New Age.

The boundaries of the Middle Ages can be determined by different approaches to the history of culture and politics. However, in any case, it is necessary to analyze Christianity, since its ideology is the theoretical basis of the Middle Ages.

Main principle medieval political thought - theocratism, i.e. the predominance of the idea of ​​the Divine and the idea of ​​the church over the individual and the state. The theocratic idea developed in connection with the formation and strengthening of the church organization. It took full shape in the 13th century.

General characteristics of the political thought of the European Middle Ages

Christianity arose in the 1st century. in the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire as the religion of the oppressed, who sought deliverance from inhuman living conditions in the coming of the Messiah (Savior). Most Christian communities were poor. In the I-II centuries. their social base consisted of slaves, freedmen, artisans, and women occupied a significant place among the first Christians.

However, from the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. the influx of people from the middle and even upper classes of society to Christians gradually increased. The spread of Christianity in different population groups was facilitated by the nature of this religious teaching, as well as a form of organization of Christians.

Christians gathered both in private houses belonging to their coreligionists and under open air. Anyone who wanted to accept the Christian faith could come to them. At meetings called ecclesia (the word “ecclesia” in Greek cities meant “national assembly” - once the main body of city government), Christians listened to sermons, prophecies, and read messages.

Each community had its own prophets, and there were also wandering prophets, who, like the apostles (apostle - “messenger”, “ambassador”), moved from community to community. Christians called the apostles “messengers of God,” but themselves, brothers and sisters, did not know any hierarchy of positions in the community. But there were fewer and fewer preachers who could refer to the fact that they themselves had listened to the disciples of Jesus; oral tradition began to be replaced by recordings sacred texts.

In the 1st century In some communities, the first elders-presbyters appeared to lead daily life; they were elected by the community to carry out organizational and economic functions. Sometimes they were called bishops, i.e. guards. Low-ranking ministers also appeared - deacons, including women.

In the II-III centuries. All larger number wealthy people accepted the new teaching. To become true Christians, they had to engage in charity and give part of their wealth to the poor. Rich people were mostly educated, familiar with Greek philosophy.

Theoretical works were also created to substantiate the advantages of Christian doctrine. Among the first Christian theologians were the famous lawyer Minucius Felix, the philosopher Clement of Alexandria, and Origen.

The spread of Christianity in different ethnic environments led to differences in religious doctrine. The process of transforming Christianity into a world religion took place in an atmosphere of struggle between communities. The need for unity and at the same time for the spread of Christianity led to the understanding of communities of believers not as specific communities between which there may be disagreements and even hostility, but as a union of Christians that has by God's grace in general - a church mystically associated with the Divine.

At the same time, in the II-III centuries. There is no longer any community self-government, but a church organization is beginning to take shape. Bishops become the sole leaders of communities: they organized divine services, made selection holy books, judged and forgave Christians who had committed wrongdoings, and administered property. Leading bishops began to be called metropolitans (a metropolitan is a person from the main city).

In parallel with the complication of the hierarchy of senior servants, the number of lower ranks also increased. The church turned into a hierarchical multi-level organization in which the lower ranks depended on the higher ones. The external expression of the changes taking place in Christian communities was the construction of special buildings for worship - temples or churches.

For the Roman authorities, Christians were one of many religious groups. Official persecution of Christians began in the middle of the 3rd century. Thus, Emperor Diocletian in 303 issued a decree banning Christian worship throughout the empire. Church buildings were demolished, property was confiscated, books were burned.

But by that time the church was already quite organized, so many books were saved and assistance was provided to the victims. The initiator of the persecution of Christians, Galerius, who became emperor after the abdication of Diocletian, canceled these persecutions.

During this early period of the formation of the Christian church and the persecution of Christians, early Christian teaching took shape. The main Christian ideas that have influenced big influence on the development of political thought are:

1. the idea of ​​the intrinsic value of the human person. Every person is created in the image and likeness of God, and therefore every person has infinite value. Out of love for man and for the sake of his salvation from sin, God himself accepted the crucifixion. A Christian cannot renounce his personality, which is based on the image and likeness of God;
2. the idea of ​​individualism. Everyone has immortal soul having free will, he is personally responsible before God for his deeds;
3. the idea of ​​equality of all people before God. Christianity interprets the idea of ​​equality before God in the sense that all Christians are children of one Father. The critic of Christianity F. Engels interpreted the Christian idea of ​​equality differently, but he did not question the presence in Christian ideology of the idea of ​​equality of people. (As you know, Engels wrote: “Christianity knew only one equality for all people, namely equality original sin, which was fully consistent with his character as a religion of slaves and the oppressed.”);

Christian ethics, addressed to the lower classes of society, emphasized moral value personality, independent of a person’s political or social status, and this demonstrated its democracy;

By proclaiming the intrinsic value of the human person, and not of collective entities such as family, clan, tribe, state, Christian teaching denationalized religion. Christ's Sermon on the Mount, unlike the Law proclaimed by Moses at Sinai for the Jewish people, is addressed to all who came to listen to him;

taking shape as a world religion, Christianity developed not just another new idea, but formulated the most important civilizational principle of the division of spiritual and political power: a) the earthly is separated from the heavenly; b) above the earthly authorities there is a higher transcendental power; c) the individual gains spiritual support in litigation with earthly rulers and the state itself.

Christianity contrasted the absolute right of the state to determine the highest principle by which a person should live with the absolute obligation of believers to live according to the internal law of conscience. It taught that there is something above the state - the commandment of God. The question arose about the relationship between a person professing Christianity and the state, in other words, the question about the relationship between the church and the state. While the church organization was in the process of formation, such a question did not arise. But in the 4th century. After the abolition of the persecution of Christians and the legalization of Christianity, the time came for the union of the Christian church and the imperial power.

In 313, Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire. State power needed a single church with a single ideology. On the initiative of Constantine in 325, the First Ecumenical Council. Bishops from Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, Africa, regions of Asia Minor, Greece, Persia, Armenia, etc. gathered in Nicaea.

Constantine organized the notification of the bishops different countries, provided them with means of transportation, allocated material resources for holding the Council, and opened a meeting in one of his palaces. And later, after the collapse of the Roman Empire into Western and Eastern in 395, Councils were held on the initiative of the Byzantine emperors, who often presided over them and gave their decisions state status.

In the early Middle Ages, church councils set the tone for Christian society. At the Councils, religious dogma was developed and approved, which had not only a purely religious, but also a political meaning. Since religion was the dominant ideology in the Middle Ages, then, as F. Engels correctly noted, “the dogmas of the church simultaneously became political axioms, and biblical texts received the force of law in any court...”.

We should not forget that the formation of religious dogma took place in the most acute and fierce struggle. It was a time of great heretical movements, or rather of great doctrinal fluctuations, for orthodoxy was still far from complete. During the 4th century. a selection took place of the holy books of Christians, as well as those that were declared prohibited and subject to destruction.

At this time, the church attracted to its service the great thinkers Basil the Great, Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory the Theologian, John Chrysostom and others. At the same time, the official formation of the church hierarchy took place. Enormous wealth accumulated in the hands of the church; it became the largest landowner through the confiscated properties of pagan temples, land purchases and donations.

In the 5th century the eternal city of Rome, on whose territory no foreign enemy had set foot for eight centuries, was taken and plundered by the Goths under the leadership of King Alaric (410). The empire was captured by the Germanic peoples, who formed a number of kingdoms on its territory.

The idea of ​​theocratic domination in the teachings of Augustine

political middle ages aquinas theocratic

The strengthened church needed to have doctrine on socio-political issues. We find the development of such a teaching in Augustine (345-430), one of the church fathers. Augustine the philosopher, influential preacher and politician of the Catholic Church, was born in northern Africa. His father was a Roman patrician, a pagan, his mother a Christian. He studied in Carthage at the school of eloquence.

Having ascended to the heights of Roman pagan culture (he was part of the circle of people close to the imperial court), by the age of thirty he sharply changed his lifestyle and became a Christian. He was ordained a priest and then ordained bishop in Hippo, a city located near Carthage.

Impressed by the capture of Rome, Augustine writes a treatise “On the City of God” (413-426), the main idea of ​​which is to replace the unity of the Roman world empire (state power) with the unity of the world Catholic (Catholic - Greek universal, all-encompassing) church (spiritual power ). Augustine formulates the theocratic idea of ​​the primacy of spiritual power over secular power.

Move human history, according to Augustine, is predetermined by Divine Providence and represents a struggle between light and dark forces. Divinity is only the source of good; evil stems from free will, striving for independence and not recognizing Divine institutions.

In accordance with the struggle between light and dark forces and The World History falls into two directions: adherents of God on earth, recognizing His will, having entered the bosom of the church, build the city of God, and supporters of Satan build a secular, earthly state.

Augustine had a negative attitude towards all kinds of violence, but understood its inevitability in this world. Therefore, he recognized the need for state power, although he himself characterized its bearers as “a large gang of robbers.” By linking the kingdom of the devil with the state, Augustine laid the foundation for many medieval heresies. The meaning of history, according to Augustine, is the victory of Christianity on a worldwide scale.

Papacy and Empire

2-3 centuries after the collapse of the Roman state, new forces emerged in Europe - the papacy and the empire. The Bishop of Rome, who received the name “pope” back in the 6th century, stood out among other “princes of the church.” The second force was the new Christian empire founded by the Frankish king Charlemagne, who in 800 was crowned by the pope as Emperor of the “Holy Roman Empire.” After the death of its founder, the empire fell apart, but was restored in the 10th century. as "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation".

During the reforms of Pope Gregory the Seventh in the 11th century. The influence of the church is strengthening and at the same time the struggle between the empire and the papacy is unfolding, which proceeded with varying success. After the division of the churches into Catholic and Orthodox in 1054, the leadership of the papacy is not disputed by the Western Church.

In the person of Gregory the Seventh, the papacy put forward a claim not only to independence from the power of the emperors, but also to dominance over them. In his activities, the pope was guided by the teaching of St. Augustine about the city of God, which in its essence stands much higher than the city of the earth. To determine the relationship between spiritual and secular authorities, their comparison with the Sun and Moon, known as the theory of the two luminaries, was used.

Roman emperors identified themselves with the Sun, and some medieval emperors tried to revive this comparison. But since the time of Gregory the Seventh, such attempts were decisively suppressed.

From the Book of Genesis, church authorities borrowed the image of two luminaries: “And God said: let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens... And God created two great lights: the greater luminary to rule the day, and the lesser luminary to rule the night.”

For the church, the great luminary - the Sun - was the pope, the lesser luminary - the Moon - the emperor or king. These significant characters, around which the conflict crystallized, served, as is typical for the Middle Ages, at the same time as both a theory and an image.

Another image known as the theory of two swords became widespread during the Middle Ages. The sword was a symbol of power. The theory of the two swords is known in different interpretations, depending on which side in the dispute between spiritual and temporal power prevailed.

In the interpretation of the church, Christ gives the spiritual (church) ruler two swords as symbols of spiritual and temporal power. And already myself spiritual lord, in turn, hands over one sword to the secular sovereign and therefore has primacy over him.

The growth of the political influence of the papacy was especially clearly manifested in the organization of the crusades in the East (XI-XIII centuries). During this time, the Catholic Church was at the zenith of its power and closest to gaining supremacy over secular power. By the end of the 13th century. The church also gained the upper hand over heretical movements.

Medieval heresies

In the Middle Ages, political thought and jurisprudence, philosophy and natural science, all the “seven liberal arts” were clothed in religious garb and subordinated to theology. In heresies - religious movements that deviate from the official doctrine of the Catholic Church, one can also discern an oppositional socio-political doctrine.

It is customary to distinguish between early Christian and medieval heresies. The latter, in turn, consist of heresies of the 11th-13th centuries. (Paulicians, Bogomils, Cathars, Albigensians, etc.) and XIV-XVI centuries. (Lollards, Taborites, Apostolic Brothers, Anabaptists, etc.). All these heresies were mass movements of a plebeian-peasant or burgher character, directed against the papacy and feudalism.

The heresy of the Paulicians, or Bogomils, which penetrated from the East, was of the Manichaean type; it divided the world into two halves: pure, spiritual, God's and sinful, material, satanic. The heretics also included the Catholic Church in the second part, in which they saw the concentration of evil. They called themselves Cathars, i.e. clean.

In France, the Cathars were known as Albigensians (after the city of Albi, the center of the movement). The Cathars had their own clergy, which they derived from apostolic church, and their rituals.

It was an anti-church with a teaching that was anti-Catholicism. In all these heresies material world was a world of evil, and not only the official church, but everyone government agencies were recognized as the product of an evil spirit. Therefore, the Cathars and Albigensians refused to recognize state institutions, military service, and take the oath.

In addition to mass heresies in the XII-XIII centuries. there were mystical heresies. They were not as widespread as, for example, the Albigensian heresy, against which the pope declared a crusade and established the Inquisition. Among the mystical heresies, the most famous are the Amalricans and Joachimites.

The Amalricans (named after the founder of the Parisian master of theology Amalrich Bensky) developed mystical ideas about the direct approach of believers to God. This also reflected the denial of the significance of the church, its “only saving” power, its role as a mediator between man and God. Denying all authority and traditional orders, the Amalricans professed a kind of anarchism.

The founder of the Joachimite heresy, monk Joachim of Flora and his followers believed that the church had decayed and, along with existing world must be condemned. She must give way new church the righteous, those who are able to renounce wealth and establish a kingdom of equality.

The egalitarian ideas of the Joachimites were very popular at the University of Paris. The political platform of the Lollards, Taborites, and Apostolic Brothers included demands for the equality of all, the abolition of class privileges, courts, wars, and the state. The followers of these movements opposed the papacy, pompous cult, and the differences between the clergy and the laity.

Medieval heresies served as the direct source of the Reformation and Protestantism in general.

Political teachings of Thomas Aquinas

XIII century - the century of the highest power of the Roman Church. At this time, the final formation of medieval religious dogma took place. The church owes this to the “most glorious,” “angel-like” Thomas Aquinas (1225 or 1226 - 1274), who, in addition to theology and philosophy, interpreted the problems of law, morality, state, and economics.

Thomas Aquinas was born near Naples, near the city of Aquino, belonged to an aristocratic family, and was the great-nephew of Frederick Barbarossa. Thomas is the first scholastic teacher of the church ("prince of philosophy"). Studied in Cologne, Bologna, Rome, Naples. Since 1279 he has been recognized as the official Catholic philosopher, who associated Christian doctrine(in particular, the ideas of Augustine the Blessed) with the philosophy of Aristotle.

In his political views, Thomas rejected social equality and argued that the division into classes was established by God. All types of power on earth are from God. “The state community,” he wrote, “is a preparation for a higher community - the state of God. Thus, the state is subordinate to the church as a means to an end.”

In this case, one should distinguish between the essence, form and use of power. The authority established by God brings good to people, so it should be obeyed unquestioningly.

The chief purpose of government is to promote the common good, to ensure justice in public affairs, and to ensure peace among its subjects. But the use of power can be bad. Therefore, to the extent that secular power violates the laws of God, subjects have the right to resist it.

The teachings of F. Aquinas recognized the sovereignty of the power of the people: “A king who has betrayed his duty cannot demand obedience. This is not a rebellion aimed at overthrowing the king; since he himself rebelled, the people have the right to depose him.

However, it is better to limit its power to prevent abuse. To this end, the entire people must participate in government. Political system must combine a limited and elective monarchy with an aristocracy of learning, and a democracy which would ensure access to power for all classes through popular elections.

No government has the right to levy taxes beyond the measure established by the people. All political power is exercised by the consent of the people, and all laws must be made by the people or their representatives. We cannot be safe while we are dependent on the will of another person."

The theory of popular sovereignty had supporters not only among the Guelph party - the church party - to which Thomas belonged, but also among the Ghibelline party - supporters of the empire. The most famous writer of the Ghibelline party was Marcelius of Padua (born 1280, year of death unknown).

“Laws,” he wrote, “derive their authority from the people and wither away without their sanction... The monarch, approved by the legislative power and executing its will, ... is responsible to the people and is subject to the law, and the people who appoint him and prescribe him duties, must see that he obeys the Constitution, and in case of violation, expel him.” The agreement of the Forms of Aquinas on the ides of Marseilles of Padua, representing the warring parties, is significant. many questions.

The merit of F. Aquinas is the development of the theory of law. Man as a citizen Christian state deals with four types of laws: eternal, natural, human and Divine. Eternal law is the Divine mind that rules the Universe.

The eternal law is contained in God and therefore exists by itself. All other laws are derivative and subordinate to the eternal. Natural law is a reflection of Divine law in human mind. Due to the involvement of the human mind in the Divine mind, the human mind controls all his moral powers and is the source of natural law (he commands to do good and avoid evil).

According to the law of natural law, people lived a blissful life before the Fall. From natural law follows human law, created by the will of people. The purpose of human law must be the common good, which Thomas understands in the same way as Aristotle: it means interests that concern equally all citizens.

Human laws are intended to force people to do what they should do. And this goal is achieved in three ways: commanding, allowing and prohibiting. In addition to being aimed at the common good, the law must be issued by a competent authority and made public.

As for the fourth type of law, these are the laws of the Old and New Testaments, those that lead a person to achieve bliss in the other life, for which Divine revelation is required due to the insufficiency of natural reason alone.

Views of the English philosopher W. Occam

In the XIV century. the power of the church, which had reached its peak in the previous century, began to weaken, and secular power in the person of kings began to strengthen. In Europe, the process of creating centralized nation states began. Under these conditions, teachings emerged that challenged the primacy of the papacy.

In contrast to Augustine, who argued that secular power is from the devil, they argued that there is no power that is not from God. The Pope does indeed own a sword, but this sword symbolizes spiritual power: to carry the light of truth, to fight heresies. The sword of secular power is in the hands of sovereigns.

A supporter of the independence of secular power was the famous English philosopher W. Ockham (1300-1350). He believed that in earthly affairs the state should have power, and in ecclesiastical matters the church should have power. Ockham considered the papacy to be a temporary institution and believed that the highest spiritual body was the community of believers and the Council elected by it.

His political views in many ways anticipated the ideas of the Reformation and those key ideas that would dominate political thought three to four centuries later. For example, Occam wrote that in the state of nature all people lived without property and power, which ensured their equality. The state must be established through a social contract. The purpose of the state is the common good, protected by laws.

In the XIV century. Democratic theories of popular law became widespread. As is known, the system of vassalage that prevailed during feudalism established the following relationships: the sovereign, receiving rights over the vassal, was obliged to protect him.

Accordingly, theories of popular law argued that there was an agreement between the monarch and the people, and the people, by accepting the duty of submission, received the right to demand from the monarch rule for the benefit of the people.

If monarchs violate the treaty, then the people have the right to regard such rule as tyranny and resist it. These theories contained not only the position of the right of the people, but also the idea of ​​the right to fight tyranny, which would later be echoed in the teachings of the so-called monarchomakhs, or tyrant fighters.

But the right of the people turned out to be a collective right characteristic of the Middle Ages; the people were considered as a whole, and not as a collection of individuals, each of whom was endowed with personal rights. And the idea of ​​individualism and personal rights of the individual is already an idea of ​​a new era.

Conclusion

As is known, in the early stages of the existence of society social connections and human behavior was explained primarily within the framework of the doctrine of divine origin human life: God (demiurge, absolute) completely determines the earthly order, exuding power and commanding man. Within the framework of the relationship he set, the “king” and the “people” were completely dependent on divine providence. Their role was only to transmit, embody the heavenly will. Such a supernatural explanation of the nature of power testified to the inability of political thought of that time to give a rational interpretation of this type of reality, to identify its external and internal connections.

A different interpretation of the theological approach was proposed by Thomas Aquinas. The medieval thinker identified three elements of power: principle, method and existence. The principle, according to Aquinas, comes from God, and the method and existence of power are derived from human law.

Power from this point on appeared as a combination of invisible, providential control and human effort. It turned out that God determined the most general establishments of power, and its real embodiment was carried out by people who had their own will, had their own interests, but acted in accordance with the will of God.

The political views of F. Aquinas, M. Padua, V. Occam contradict the idea of ​​Italian humanists about the Middle Ages as a “dark night” of European history. Rather, F. Schlegel is right when he wrote: “If the Middle Ages can be compared to a dark night, then this night is starry.”

List of used literature

1.Kravchenko A.I. Political science. M.: Publishing center "Academy". 2001. - 345 p.

.Mukhaev R.T. Political science: Textbook for universities. - M.: “Prior-izdat”, 2003. - 432 p.

.Political Science: Academic. allowance / Ed. M.A. Vasilika. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

.Pugachev V.P. Political Science: Student's Handbook. - M., 2000.

.Sirota P. M. Political science: A course of lectures, St. Petersburg, 2000.

History of political and legal doctrines: Textbook for universities Team of authors

3. Medieval heresies

3. Medieval heresies

Exploitation and violence, arbitrariness and inequality that took place in the Middle Ages provoked protest from the oppressed. With the dominant position of religion in public consciousness In the Middle Ages, such a class protest could not help but take on a religious guise. It took the form in Western Europe of various deviations from the doctrine and practice of the Roman Catholic Church and the papacy. Currents that are in opposition or directly hostile to the official creed are called heresies.

At the first stage of the evolution of feudal relations (late 5th - mid-11th centuries), the heresies that existed in Western Europe did not yet have a mass base. In the XI-XII centuries. there was a rise in heretical movements. Quite large groups of people began to take part in them. The areas of their distribution were Northern Italy, Southern France, Flanders, and partly Germany - places of intensive urban development. In the XI-XIII centuries. the flow of oppositional heretical movements was not strictly differentiated along social and class lines. Later, in the 14th-15th centuries, plebeian-peasant and burgher (urban) heresies clearly emerged as independent movements.

One of the first major heretical movements that had a European resonance was Bogomilism (Bulgaria, X-XIII centuries). The Bogomil teaching reflected the sentiments of the enslaved Bulgarian peasants, who opposed feudal-church exploitation and national oppression of the country by the Byzantine Empire. Views similar to Bogomilism and growing on approximately the same social soil (with Bogomilism) were preached in Western Europe in the 11th-13th centuries. Cathars, Patarens, Albigensians, Waldenses, etc.

What gave the above-mentioned heresies an oppositional character was, first of all, the sharp criticism they contained of the contemporary Catholic Church. Its hierarchical structure and magnificent rituals, the wealth it unjustly acquired and the clergy mired in vice, who, according to the heretics, perverted the true teaching of Christ, were sharply condemned. The pathos of most of these heresies lay, in particular, in the fact that they condemned the established and ever-increasing inequality (especially property), rejected property, and condemned profit. For the Bogomils, Cathars, and Waldenses, not only the official church and its institutions were unacceptable; they also denied statehood and the entire structure of social life.

The programs of heretical movements, which expressed the interests of the most disadvantaged, plebeian-peasant masses, called on believers to return to the early Christian organization of the church. The Bible became a formidable and powerful weapon in the hands of heretics in their struggle against the Roman Catholic Church. Then the latter simply forbade the laity (bull of Pope Gregory IX, 1231) to read the main book of Christianity.

The most radical of heretical movements also adopted some ideas Manichaeanism. The Manichaeans declared the entire physical world (natural-cosmic and social, human) to be the creation of the devil, the eternal embodiment of evil, deserving only of contempt and destruction. Such indiscriminate denigration of the world as a whole, as well as the attribution of the desired ideal to the past, distorted the actual socio-political needs of the masses of the time; it weakened the attractive power of heretical movements.

As already mentioned, in the general flow of oppositional heretical movements XIV-XV centuries clearly loomed two independent movements: burgher and peasant-plebeian heresies. The first reflected the socio-political interests of the wealthy strata of the townspeople and the social groups adjacent to them. The burgher heresy was closely related to the burgher concepts of the state, in which the urgent need for the formation of a unified national statehood was theoretically comprehended. The political leitmotif of this heresy is the demand for a “cheap church,” which meant the abolition of the class of priests, the elimination of their privileges and wealth, and a return to the simple structure of the early Christian church.

Prominent representatives of the burgher heresy are Doctor of Theology and Professor at Oxford University in England John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384) and Czech theologian Jan Hus (1371 - 1415). J. Wycliffe insisted on the independence of the English Church from the Roman Curia and objected to interference church circles into the affairs of the state. At the same time, he rejected the egalitarian slogans of peasant-plebeian ideologists, believing that existing private property and the division of society into classes came from God. Ian Gus was a follower of Wycliffe. The unorthodox content of Hus's sermons coincided with the motives of the national liberation struggle of the broad masses of the Czech Republic against the German feudal lords. However, in general, the ideological platforms of Wycliffe and Hus differed little from each other.

Peasant-plebeian heretical movements of the XIV-XV centuries. represented in history by performances Lollards(mendicant priests) in England and Taborites in the Czech Republic. The Lollards, who wanted the transfer of land to peasant communities and the liberation of farmers from the shackles of serfdom, tried to put into practice the simple, ascetic lifestyle of the early Christians. The Taborite camp was formed during the national-Czech peasant war, which flared up against the German nobility and the supreme power of the German emperor after the brutal execution of Huss. Being representatives of the interests of the peasantry, the urban lower classes, and the impoverished petty knighthood, the Taborites not only fought against the Roman Catholic Church, but also sought to implement measures of a strictly anti-feudal nature (the abolition of the exclusive rights of the nobility, feudal duties, etc.). They hoped for the advent of the “millennial kingdom” and thought that equality would finally be established in it and common affairs would be decided by people together. Even a republican tendency emerged in the Taborite movement. Neither the Lollards nor the Taborites succeeded in achieving their goals. They were defeated by the combined efforts of spiritual and secular feudal lords.

The noose, the executioner's ax, the fire have always been the last arguments of the church and the state of that time in the fight against heresies. However, with the death of heretics, oppositional, rebellious heretical ideas did not perish and disappear without a trace from the historical scene. Some of the burgher heresies, for example, entered the spiritual arsenal of the burgher-church Reformation of the 16th century. Many elements of peasant-plebeian heresies, in turn, were included in the ideology of the revolutionary masses who participated in the early bourgeois revolutions of the 16th-17th centuries. (Germany, Holland, England).

In addition to official doctrines and teachings, a number of very original political and legal ideas contain the so-called. medieval heresies(from Latin heuresis - selection, personal choice) - teachings hostile to official Christianity and the church, created by various sects(Latin sekta – way of thinking, teaching). The reason for their emergence and spread was the exploitation and violence, arbitrariness and inequality that existed within the feudal system, which quite naturally provoked protest from the oppressed. Given the predominance of religion in the public consciousness and with the support of the official church “the powers that be and those in power,” such a protest naturally took the form of religious heresies. Some other, non-Marxist researchers tend to view medieval heresies as a form of mass psychosis associated with the expectation of the end of the world (G. Lebon), or as a manifestation of people’s subconscious desire for self-destruction (I. Shafarevich).

Religiously - philosophical foundations medieval heresies there were such teachings as Gnosticism and Manichaeism. The doctrine of Gnosticism developed as a result of the translation of ancient Jewish books (the Old Testament) into Greek language scientists from Alexandria in the 2nd century. ( Basilides, Valentinus, Marcion). From the point of view of the Gnostics, the reason for the existence of evil in the world is the participation of two gods in its creation: evil and good. Evil God is the creator of Old Testament created the human body, the evil and imperfect material world. The Good God, the Redeemer of the New Testament, created the soul of man and seeks to help him free himself from the shackles of the material world. Thus, the entire material world is cursed, and what is in it must be destroyed. The founder of the Manichaean teaching is the Persian thinker Mani(lat. Manicheus), who lived approximately 216–270. and came from a royal family. According to the teachings of the Manichaeans, in the world and in the human soul there is a constant struggle between the bright and the good principles, and the good is identified with the spirit, and the evil with matter. A person, following the example of Jesus, must achieve the liberation of his soul from dark forces. To do this, a “dedicated” person must lead an ascetic lifestyle (not eat meat, limit sexual pleasures and not engage in ordinary physical labor).

As for history, the rise of heretical movements dates back to the 11th and 12th centuries, when quite significant groups of people began to take part in them. The areas where heresies were most widespread were Northern Italy, Southern France, Flanders and partly Germany - i.e. places of intensive urban development. Moreover, if in the 11th – 13th centuries. the flow of oppositional heretical movements was not differentiated according to social and social characteristics (did not express the interests of specific social groups), then later, in the 14th - 15th centuries. Plebeian-peasant and burgher (urban) heresies began to stand out clearly.

One of the first heretical movements to spread throughout Europe was Bogomilism(Bulgaria, 10th – 13th centuries). It expressed the dissatisfaction of the enslaved Bulgarian peasants, who opposed feudal-ecclesiastical exploitation and national oppression of the country by the Byzantine Empire; Pre-Byzantine times and the Bulgarian kings until the 11th century were idealized. Views similar to those of Bogomil and generated by similar socio-economic conditions in Western Europe in the 11th – 13th centuries. preached patarens(after the name of rag pickers - a symbol of beggars), Albigensians, Paulicians(named after the preacher Paul) Waldenses(a brotherhood of mendicants named after the merchant from Lyon Pierre Wald), etc.

One of the largest heretical movements was Cathars(pure), which were divided into dualistic and monarchical. Dualistic believed that the cause of earthly evil is the existence of two gods - good and evil: the good one created the human soul, and the evil one created matter, the Earth and human body. Monarchical believed that there was a single good God, but the material world was created by his eldest son (angel) who fell away from God - Lucifer or Satan. Both directions recognize that matter, all material and social relations and institutions are evil. Therefore, childbirth and family, secular authorities and laws, courts and instruments of violence are the product of dark force, and they should be destroyed (they were hiding from the world, even pregnant women were killed). They focused their propaganda on the lower strata of the city, but also enjoyed influence in the upper strata (for example, they formed the retinue of Count Raymond of Toulouse).

The common features of all the above heresies were:

1) Harsh criticism of the Roman Catholic Church. At the same time, its hierarchical structure and magnificent rituals, unjustly acquired wealth and clergy mired in vice were sharply condemned - such a church, according to adherents of heresies, perverted the true teaching of Christ, the very principles of philanthropy, equality and brotherhood;

2) Rejection of state power and all existing social orders, social inequality, property and laws (Waldensians: “judges and authorities cannot sentence death without committing a sin”);

3) The demand to abolish or destroy everything social institutions(power, family, property), a call for believers to return to the early Christian (communal) organization of the church, down to the community of property and wives; In particular, under the influence of these calls, the Cathars in France and Italy destroyed churches and killed bishops, the Taborites in the Czech Republic openly called for the destruction of secular authorities and clergy, and the Adamite sect, which stood out among them, completely destroyed the population of the town of Prcica (they took upon themselves the implementation of divine retribution) , and the Taborites in Gorodishche introduced order in the spirit of primitive communism.

4) Reliance on independently interpreted texts of the Bible as the ideological basis of their movements;

As a result, in 1129 the Council of Toulouse prohibited believers from possessing the books of the Old and New Testaments, and especially their translations into vernacular. In 1231, by the bull of Pope Gregory 1X, the reading and interpretation of the Bible was prohibited for the laity.

The official church was not inclined to downplay the danger posed by the ideas of heretics. The medieval chronicler wrote about Albigensian heresy(after the name of the city of Alba in the province of Languedoc in France): “The Albigensian delusion grew so strong that it soon infected 1000 cities, and if it had not been suppressed by the sword of the faithful, it would soon have infected all of Europe.”

At the same time, by the 14th – 15th centuries. More moderate burgher heresies separated from the radical peasant-plebeian heresies. They expressed the interests of wealthy sections of the townspeople. Within the framework of numerous teachings of this direction, the need to create a stronger national state was substantiated, the demand for a cheap church was put forward, which, in essence, meant the abolition of the class of priests, the elimination of their privileges and wealth, and a return to the simple structure of the early Christian church. At the same time, adherents of burgher heresies opposed the equalization of property and social status, believing that the division of society into classes and the institution of private property were of divine origin.

The two most prominent representatives of the burgher heresy are a doctor of divinity and a professor at Oxford University in England. John Wycliffe(1324 – 1384) and Czech theologian, teacher at the University of Prague. Leader of the anti-Catholic and anti-German movement Jan Hus(1371 – 1415). Moreover, each of them formed his own political doctrine depending on the specific features of the situation in his country and his time. J. Wycliffe, in particular, insisted on the independence of the English Church from the Roman Curia, disputed the principle of papal infallibility and objected to church intervention in state affairs. Being close to King Richard 2, he became the ideologist of the movement for the resubordination of the church to the king. His more radical ideas (about property as a product of sin) were not accepted, and after his death his remains were seized and burned at the stake.

Jan Hus was a follower of Wycliffe’s ideas (they came to the Czech Republic through the wife of Richard 2, a Czech by nationality), and in his sermons he emphasized the need for the national liberation struggle of broad sections of the Czech people against the German feudal lords.

Peasant-plebeian heretical movements of the 14th – 15th centuries. were represented in history by performances Lollards(mendicant priests inspired by the ideas of Wycliffe) in England and Taborites (followers of Hus) in the Czech Republic. The Lollards, in particular, demanded the transfer of land to peasant communities and the liberation of peasants from all forms of feudal dependence, and took an active part in Wat Tyler's rebellion(1381) - and were subjected to persecution (act of 1401 “On the desirability of burning heretics”). The Taborite camp was formed during the national Czech peasant war (in alliance with the urban lower classes and the small nobility) against the German nobility and the power of the German emperor after the death of Jan Hus himself - in the settlement of Tabor they gathered sectarians from all over Europe. In the spirit of radical ideas, they demanded the abolition of not only the Roman Catholic Church, but also the feudal institutions themselves (class privileges of the nobility, all forms of feudal duties), for universal equality and life in communities with egalitarian orders.

As a general result, both the Lollard movement and the Taborite movement were defeated by the combined efforts of the royal power, secular and spiritual feudal lords. So, for example, to fight the Albigensians, Pope Innocent 3 called feudal lords from Northern France and promised them the property of heretics. They killed 15 thousand in the first battle, and then they killed everyone in a row. The papal legate motivated it this way: “Kill everyone, God will recognize his own.” At the same time, less dangerous sectarians (for example, mendicant vagabonds - Waldenses (“Lyon brothers”) were subjected only to administrative persecution, and in contrast to them the mendicant order of Franciscans (named after the Catholic Saint Francis of Assisi) was created.

The radical ideas themselves received their echo in the early bourgeois revolutions of the 16th and 17th centuries. (Germany, Holland, England, for example, diggers and levelers). More moderate burgher heresies also developed, some of which were embodied in the ideology of the church-burgher Reformation of the 16th century.

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