The U.D. has a trace. general structure: need-task-motives-actions-operations. The need for education is the desire of students to master theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area (this knowledge reflects the laws of the origin, formation and development of objects in the corresponding field; empirical-utilitarian knowledge, in contrast to theoretical knowledge, records only the characteristics of already established objects). Specifics learning task is that when solving it, students master in a general way solving a whole class of homogeneous particular problems. The motives for educational actions specify the need for academic development, when the general desire of students to master theoretical knowledge is aimed at mastering a well-defined general method of solving a certain class of particular problems.

Part educational activities includes: 1) acceptance or independent formulation of a learning task; 2) transformation of the conditions of the educational task in order to detect some general attitude the subject being studied; 3) modeling of the selected relationship (see Modeling in training); 4) transforming the model of this relationship to study its properties in its “pure form”; 5) construction of a system of particular problems solved in a general way; 6) control over the implementation of previous actions; 7) assessment of mastering the general method as a result of solving a learning task. Training operations, included in the actions, correspond to the specific conditions for solving individual educational tasks.

The structure of educational activity is formed in children of primary school age (preschoolers have only its prerequisites, one of which is cognitive interest). At this age, physical activity is the main and leading activity among other types of activities (art, play, sports, etc.). The systematic implementation of educational activities by younger schoolchildren determines the emergence and development of psychological neoplasms of a given age (the subject of this activity, the foundations of theoretical thinking, the arbitrariness of educational and cognitive actions).

Primary form Educational action is achieved through its collectively distributed implementation by the entire class or its individual groups. In the process of interiorization, it is formed individual U.D., the indicator of which is the ability of its subject to proactively and independently distinguish between known and unknown theoretical knowledge in the subject being mastered, to ask meaningful questions to peers and teachers, and the ability not only to constantly participate in discussions, but also to be their initiator and organizer.

Psychological and pedagogical research shows that education at the end of the existing primary education in Russia (that is, by the 10th year of a child’s life) has not yet acquired a truly individual form. The problem arises of prolonging it for 1-2 years, so that at the end of primary school age the child develops the desire and ability to learn, that is, the need for learning and the possibility of its individual implementation.

In subsequent ages, which correspond to certain stages of education (adolescence - primary school; early adolescence - high school; adolescence - higher school), education undergoes qualitative changes in the content of theoretical knowledge acquired by students, in the nature of its implementation studying, according to the methods of organization by teachers and lecturers, according to the role in the formation of psychological new formations inherent in each age. Thus, in adolescence, education loses its leading character, but retains significant importance in the development of students’ theoretical thinking, which occurs in the process of their mastering a wide variety of academic subjects in the humanities, natural sciences, and mathematics. Adolescents have an individual form of educational control and, acting as its full-fledged subjects, can independently set educational goals for themselves when mastering complex material, and when carrying out educational activities, perform different types of control (anticipatory, reflexive, etc.), taking In this case, along with teachers, there is a certain participation in the organization of educational activities of their peers.

In high school age leading again becomes U.D., but with a professional bias, allowing high school students to carry out vocational guidance and outline their own - life path. At student age, education takes on a research character. The assimilation of already accumulated theoretical knowledge is woven into the process of their independent formulation of the results of individual or collective research, design and construction, produced in accordance with the requirements of various forms of knowledge, which leads students to clarify scientific concepts, improve artistic images, deepen moral values etc. Educational skills become the basis for the development of predictive and exploratory theoretical thinking in young men.

The capabilities and level of theoretical thinking of students is an essential characteristic of their personality, therefore the development of this type of thinking in the process of implementing educational activities also indicates the development of important personal qualities in them. See Training and Development, Self-Education, Learning Consciousness. (V.V. Davydov.)

LEARNING OBJECTIVE(English learning task) - a task that requires students to discover and master in educational activities a general method (principle) of solving a relatively wide range of particular practical problems. Put U. z. - means introducing the student into a situation that requires orientation towards a meaningfully general method of solving it in all possible particular and specific conditions. (V.V. Davydov.)

TEACHING (learning)(English learning) - the process of acquiring and consolidating (or changing existing) ways of an individual’s activity. U.'s results are elements of individual experience (knowledge, abilities, skills).

Any interaction with the world not only satisfies the needs of the individual, but also leads to a more complete and accurate reflection of the conditions of activity, which ensures the improvement of the methods of its implementation. Thus, U. is a necessary component any activity and represents the process of change in its subject, conditioned by its substantive content. In this way, control differs from changes in activity caused by the physiological properties of the organism (its maturation, functional state, etc.).

Ignoring the active nature of control leads to the absolutization of the properties inherent in its particular forms. This approach is characteristic, in particular, of behaviorist theories, each of which postulates its own “absolute” laws of behavior, deriving them, as a rule, from the analysis of acts of behavior of animals isolated from the activity. To overcome such one-sidedness, it is not enough to simply accept the concept of activity; it is important what content is put into it. Thus, a number of theories consider control as a manifestation of the analytical-synthetic activity of the brain, which does little to help identify the actual psychological laws of control, since the physiological activity of the brain determines control secondarily, being itself determined by the activity of the subject. Scientific understanding of science is possible only in the context of objective activity. From these positions, U.'s theory was developed by a number of Soviet scientists. psychologists (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, P. Ya. Galperin, V. V. Davydov, etc.). Considered as an aspect of objective activity, management acts as a developing phenomenon: along with changes in the type of activity, the forms of management and its most important characteristics naturally change.

The complication of animal activity during the evolution leads to the emergence of increasingly complex forms and types of control. Nevertheless, they constitute a qualitatively homogeneous stage in its development, since they are included in the same type (adaptive) activity, which predetermines the commonality of the essential characteristics of animal control. Thus, analysis and generalization of activity conditions are possible only in relation to directly affecting stimuli that perform a signaling function; Acts of behavior developed in the process of learning are based on instinctive reactions; The attitude of control to its conditioned reflex mechanisms is the same: while implementing the process of control, they themselves do not undergo significant changes in it. Thus, control in animals does not change the type of life activity of the individual; its function is reduced to modifying hereditarily fixed methods of activity in accordance with the specific conditions of its implementation.

The restructuring of life at the human level is due to the transition to work. The methods of productive and transformative human activity are not fixed by the mechanisms of biological heredity and are passed on to new generations in an objectified form (through tools and products of labor, language, etc.). Thus, learning begins to act as a process of assimilation by the individual of historically formed methods of activity. Since they are objectified in an implicit, compressed form, in order to assimilate they must first be deployed, ensuring the specific functioning of tools, signs, etc. Such deployment of methods of activity for the purpose of their assimilation by other people is the essence training, which is a necessary condition for human training (animal training can be carried out outside of training).

Indicative, executive and control components of a fundamentally new action for the subject may. initially reproduced by him only in external (material) form. Subsequently, all of them (or part of them) are translated with the help of language to the sign level and, through speech, transferred to the mental (ideal) plane, undergoing generalization, reduction and automation. At this level of mastery, indicative operations turn into a mechanism for obtaining knowledge about an object, acting in unity with the methods of its real or mental transformation. Interiorization (transfer to the ideal plane) of material actions or their orientation-control components is a universal psychological mechanism of human control, the laws of which are described in the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts (Halperin). The specific form of their manifestation is determined by the conditions in which learning is carried out (the characteristics of the acquired methods, the nature of their deployment in learning, the type of activity of the subject within which learning is carried out, etc.). In the most complete and “pure” form, the laws of learning are manifested in its forms included in educational activities.

In the process of self-control, the psychological mechanisms that implement it are rebuilt, which form the basis for the emergence and development of the individual’s abilities, which in turn become an important factor in training. U.'s function is very limited). See Educational psychology, Psychology of learning.

SCIENTIST IDIOTS(English idiots savants) - individuals who, according to formal criteria, belong to the category of mentally retarded, nevertheless they show a high development of individual abilities (for example, counting, linguistic, visual). There are known mentally retarded individuals who are called calendar counters, who can easily determine which day of the week a particular date falls on; at the same time, they experience difficulties with the most basic everyday skills. A psychological examination (Howe M. J. A., Smith J., 1988) of one such unique person showed that he retains in memory a large amount of information about the distribution of days of the week in months, presented in the form of visual images. (B.M.)

USHINSKY KONSTANTIN DMITRIEVICH(1824-1870/71) - famous grew up. teacher, according to many, the founder of scientific pedagogy in Russia. Supporter of the democratization of schooling and the development of women's education. Special attention U. was attracted by issues related to pedagogical and social thought, and, first of all, by the goals of education, which he understood not only as the acquisition of a stock of knowledge, but also as the development of the student’s mental abilities, as well as the development in him of the desire and ability for further independent learning. acquisition. U. saw the main tasks of the school as giving an idea of ​​the diversity of reality and teaching methods of understanding it.

The range of U.'s scientific interests in modern terminology embraces theoretical and practical problems of pedagogy, general, educational and practical psychology. U.’s characteristic “anthropologism” and “psychologism” were manifested in understanding the content of school education, problems of organizing education, constructing curricula and programs, requirements for educational books, etc. U. saw the key to solving all these and many other problems in relying on psychological law of development of the human soul. In U.'s works, general didactic principles and specific teaching methods are developed, and he was more interested in the initial stage of training; he even developed a sound method for teaching reading and writing simultaneously. Many of the ideas of education have become the “basics” of pedagogical science and are now taken for granted (for example, the importance of studying natural sciences for the development of observation, logic and critical thinking), which does not at all detract from their value, etc. remain misunderstood to this day (e.g. the role of training native language and, in particular, the study of grammar, which contributes to the development of not only consciousness, but also self-awareness and, thus. “humanizes” a person).

Psychologicaltheory of educational activity

psychology educational activities cultural historical

The psychology of learning studies a wide range of issues covering the process of acquiring and consolidating the ways of an individual’s activity, as a result of which a person’s individual experience is formed - his knowledge, skills and abilities. Teaching accompanies a person’s entire life, since he receives knowledge from life itself, learning something new in any interaction with the world and improving ways to satisfy his needs. In other words, teaching is present in any activity and represents the process of formation of its subject. This teaching differs from changes in the human body caused by its physiological maturation, functional state, etc. Thus, teaching * is a fairly broad concept, including not only its organized forms (schools, courses, universities), but also spontaneous processes by which a person acquires knowledge and experience in Everyday life.

From the point of view of the activity approach, psychology considers organized forms of learning as educational activities that have their own specifics, distinguishing them from other main types of activities - work and play. Its main feature is that it forms the basis of any other activity, since it prepares a person for it. Research by psychologists in this area began relatively recently (starting around the 50s), and in the psychological theory of educational activity there is still a long way to go before the “blank spots” are eliminated. But the fundamental provisions that affirm the activity approach to learning have basically already been formulated, and they allow a fairly unambiguous approach to solving specific applied issues of the theory of learning, in particular, psychology itself.

What are the fundamental principles of the psychological theory of educational activity and how do they relate to the development of methods for teaching psychology?

First of all, a psychology teacher working in any applied field must know the basic principles of the theory of educational activity. This is necessary for the correct construction of teaching methods, which take into account the laws of knowledge acquisition.

Educational activity as a scientific concept in psychology does not have an unambiguous definition. In the interpretation of “classical” Soviet psychology and pedagogy, it is “a leading activity in primary school age”, “a special form of social activity”.

In the interpretation of D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, educational activity is one of the types of activities of students (schoolchildren and students), aimed at mastering theoretical knowledge and promoting the intensive development of thinking. Educational activity cannot be identified with the processes of assimilation of various knowledge and methods of action that occur during work, play, sports and other activities. It, in contrast to these processes, is designated by the general term “teaching”. Learning activity is a part, a specific type of learning, which is specially organized so that the student, by carrying it out, changes himself.

An important component of educational activity is the learning task. In the process of solving it, like any practical problem, certain changes occur in the objects studied by the student or in ideas about them, but as a result, the acting subject himself changes. An educational task can be considered solved only when predetermined changes have occurred in the subject.

In the process of learning activities, students adopt the experience of the older generation. Each new generation receives knowledge about the world only through direct contact with the surrounding reality, but young people do not discover this knowledge themselves, but receive it from the older generation with the help of “things and through the special organization of the new generation’s activities with these things.” This specially organized work “with things” is an educational activity aimed at mastering the experience of creating this thing - a product of the activities of previous generations, a product human experience. Students' learning activities reproduce the work of those who created this product, thanks to which they master it. A. N. Leontiev wrote that in order to master the “product human activity it is necessary to carry out activities adequate to those embodied in this product” x. The effect of educational activity is its direct result of “students’ activities that connect them with the world around them.” It is the activity and precisely the students themselves, but organized by teachers and professors with whom the students collaborate in the process of its implementation.

Educational activity has the following general structure: need - task - motives - actions - operations.

The need manifests itself in educational activities as the student’s desire to master theoretical knowledge from a particular subject area. Theoretical knowledge reflects the laws and patterns of the origin, formation and development of objects in a certain field. They can be learned only in the process of organized educational and theoretical activity, while empirical-utilitarian knowledge, which records the characteristics of objects, is acquired in the course of practical activity, i.e., outside of specially organized training.

The most important element the structure of educational activity is an educational task, solving which the student performs certain educational actions and operations. The motives for learning activities may be different, but the main motive specific to it is cognitive interest.

The implementation of educational activities represents sequentially performed educational actions or operations by students to solve an educational task, driven by a specific motive. The purpose of this activity is the assimilation of theoretical knowledge.

So, the specific content of educational activity is the solution of educational problems. What is the essence of the learning task? What is the final result of the solution to the educational problem?

Psychologists have written more than once about the need for a strict distinction between an educational task and various types of practical problems that arise throughout life. If the solution of any practical problem leads to a change in individual individual objects and this is the goal, then the solution of an educational problem does not set the goal of the changes themselves in the subject, although they can occur, but of mastering the method of action to make these changes. If a service technician restores sound or adjusts color in a home TV, then a polytechnic student, doing the same in a training laboratory, achieves not only the elimination of these malfunctions, but also masters the method of eliminating them. He acquires a certain new ability and thereby changes himself as a subject of educational activity.

In all likelihood, it is not enough for a student to do this work just once in order to act as a television equipment adjuster. To become versatile capable specialist his business, he will have to repeat similar operations more than once. And the specificity of the educational task lies precisely in the fact that the student does not master a single, separate method of solving one typical problem, but learns a general principled approach to solving all problems of a given class, no matter how diverse they may be in themselves. Thus, the student, as a subject of educational activity, must master the most general way of solving a relatively wide range of particular practical problems. And the teacher, who has set an educational task for the student, must introduce him to a situation that will orient him to this general method of solution in all kinds of private and specific conditions.

In the educational practice of schools and universities, the greatest experience has been gained in posing and solving mathematical problems. Therefore, we can use an example from the field of mathematics to illustrate the difference between a particular problem with a specific solution and an educational problem with a general method of solution. For example, solving one or two typical problems on the topic “Logarithms” with obtaining correct answers is the solution not to one educational problem, but to a whole series of problems of this class (topic, section) varying in complexity and simplicity, originality and typicality, prevalence and rarity training course), leading to mastery of the method of finding the logarithm of any numerical, algebraic or other expression. And mastering this general method of action means that the subject of educational activity - the student - has changed as a person, since he has become able to perform this previously unknown logarithmic action and thereby acquired a new ability.

This mathematical example quite clearly shows the difference between an educational problem and any other, including a particular mathematical one, but successfully solving one or two of them does not mean that a person has become able to solve any problem of this class or act confidently in this field of activity.

Meanwhile, this example may create the impression that in other academic subjects, especially the humanities, which includes psychology, it is difficult or impossible to apply the term “learning task.” This is the usual view of many humanities scholars. Nevertheless, in humanitarian subjects, solving problems (including psychological ones) is sometimes practiced, but they cannot always be interpreted as educational, since most often they are episodic, specific, isolated in nature and serve as a particular illustration of some general theoretical position . In order for them to be subsumed under the concept of “learning tasks”, they in their totality must constitute a certain system in which their solution must ultimately lead to a change in the student himself - to form in him the appropriate abilities. When students study psychology, a teacher can, for example, compose and offer them to solve a series of problems on a wide variety of human actions, actions, behavior and accompany each of them with one single question: “Is this an activity?” The result should be the assimilation of the concept of “activity”.

We are convinced that one cannot count on genuine mastery of a scientific discipline, on real mastery of science, until the entire learning process turns into a system for solving educational problems. In other words, educational activity should consist not of episodic, but of systematic solving educational problems in applying the theory being studied to reality, if we understand educational activity active work the student himself, and not the transfer of ready-made knowledge to him by the teacher or receiving it from a book.

The process of solving problems by a student is the learning activity, which includes the following elements: a) setting a learning task by the teacher in front of the student or the student in front of himself; b) acceptance of the problem by the student to solve; c) transformation by the student of a learning task in order to discover in it some general relation of the subject being studied (recognition of the general in this particular task); d) modeling of a selected relationship (in mathematics this could be drawing up, for example, an equation, and in psychology - drawing up a diagram of the logic of reasoning from the point of view of the activity approach, etc.); e) transforming the model of this relationship to study its properties in its “pure form” (for example, transferring the logical scheme of reasoning to the analysis of specific activities to study the problem of creative thinking in a psychology course); f) building a system of particular problems on a given problem, solved in a general way (such problems can be compiled either by the teacher and offer them to students, or by the student himself, taking them from life); g) monitoring the implementation of the previous action in order to correctly move on to the next action; and, finally, h) assessment (self-esteem) of the success of performing all actions as a result of mastering the general method of solving an educational problem (in psychology, this result can be confident mastery of the method of reasoning when solving creative problems).

Sequential execution of all designated elements of each educational action and constitutes the student’s educational activity as a whole.

These are in summary the main provisions of the theory of educational activity, developed in domestic psychology on the basis of cultural-historical theory (L.S. Vygotsky), the principle of the unity of the psyche and activity (S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontyev), in the context of the psychological theory of activity (A N. Leontyev) and in close connection with the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and types of learning (P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina, etc.). Experimental and theoretical studies were carried out in schools by D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov, A.V. Zaporozhets, I.I. Ilyasov, A.I. Podolsky, V.Ya. Lyaudis, as well as employees of P.Ya. Halperin, their many followers. However, the general provisions of this teaching theory can be applied to a certain extent not only to school education, but also to other parts of the education system, which has been confirmed more than once in the experience of teaching adults (students, students of advanced training courses, military personnel, etc.) 1 .

The very concept of “educational activity” appeared relatively recently, a little over 20 years ago, in connection with the development of criteria for the qualitative characteristics of schoolchildren’s knowledge (scientific, systematic, generalized, solid knowledge, etc.) and the need that arose in connection with this to consider a holistic educational activity, which includes not only knowledge, abilities and skills, the techniques behind them, actions and operations of students with educational material, but also the student’s acceptance of an educational task, his exercise of self-control, self-esteem, etc. The ability to learn is the ability to independently perform educational activity, which is impossible without conscious acceptance and creative implementation of the educational task with mandatory reflection - introspection and self-assessment of the degree of success of one’s own actions. Learning to learn means mastering the ability to carry out educational activities, which is the most important task for any student, including students.

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Main activities, ensuring the existence of a person and his formation as an individual - This communication, play, learning and work.

Communication- interaction between two or more people, including the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective-evaluative nature.

A game(children's) - a type of activity that involves children reproducing the actions of adults and the relationships between them, aimed at understanding the surrounding reality. The game serves as one of the most important means of physical, mental and moral education.

Teaching- the process of acquiring and consolidating knowledge and methods of activity by an individual. Teaching is a necessary component of any activity and represents a process of changing its subject.

Work- expedient human activity aimed at changing and transforming reality to satisfy one’s needs, creating material and spiritual values.

Specific feature games is that its goal is the game itself as an activity, and not the practical results that are achieved with its help. The motivator for play is the need for activity.

Teaching– specific activity of the subject, with the goal of learning. It includes:

– assimilation of information about the significant properties of the world necessary for the successful organization of certain types of ideal and practical activities (the product of this process is knowledge);

– mastering the techniques and operations that make up all types of activities (the product of the process is skills);

– mastering ways of using knowledge in accordance with the conditions of the task and the goal (product of the process - skills). Teaching is a specific human activity. In animals only learning is possible.

Work- activity unique to humans using tools of labor, aimed at obtaining a specific result, product.

Purpose in humans, most often it is that in this moment is absent and must be achieved as a result of the activity. The goal is represented in the brain by an image, a dynamic model of the future result of the activity. This outcome model guides human behavior and performance.

How this model develops in the brain and functions is not yet reliably known. But the fact that such a preliminary presentation of future actions and their expected result itself takes place is beyond doubt. Otherwise the activity would be impossible.

The ability for a person to foresee future results of actions arises due to one fundamental feature of the surrounding world - its regularity. This means that various phenomena are connected by certain constant connections and relationships; objects have certain stable properties and structures.

Such stable (invariant) relations between objects and phenomena are called essential properties of objects and patterns of phenomena. It is thanks to the presence of essential and stable properties and patterns that a person can anticipate the “behavior” of objects under certain conditions, as a result of certain influences on them. In this case, external, objective activity is preceded by internal, ideal activity. Objective actions on objects are replaced by ideal (mental) operations on the essential properties of these objects.

Concept of learning ability. Learning ability – this is a general cognitive ability, which manifests itself in the speed and ease of acquiring new knowledge and skills, assimilation educational material and as a performance of educational activities .

IN Lately, based on a number of experimental studies, it was suggested that general learning ability as an ability does not exist, but learning ability as a system of special abilities. There is a hypothesis about two abilities, i.e. two types of learning ability. The first was called “implicit” learning, the second – “explicit”. Implicit learning represents the ability for elementary forms of learning and memorization. It persists even in patients with the temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex removed and manifests itself in the fact that a person in an experiment improves the performance of certain tasks, but he himself cannot describe what he has learned . Implicit learning ability, along with creativity, is due to the dominance of unconscious mental activity.

Explicit learning manifests itself in rapid learning, sometimes after the very first “lesson”. It allows us to recognize previously occurring and unfamiliar events. Explicit learning ability, like intelligence, is associated with the dominance of consciousness over the unconscious in the process of regulation. It is also called “conscious” learning.

Learning ability, creativity, intelligence . The difficulty of studying learning ability as an ability lies in the fact that the success of learning is influenced by many factors, and not only general intelligence, but primarily attitudes, interests, motivation and many other mental properties of the individual. It is not for nothing that from some scientific and popular science books there are examples of how a student who did poorly at school subsequently reaches the heights of scientific “Olympus”: becoming a Doctor of Science or a Nobel laureate. Indeed, students with a high level of achievement fall into the category of low-performing schoolchildren. mental development. The reason lies in the lack of motivation to study. However, people with below average intelligence are never among the successful students (Bleicher L.F., Burlachuk V.M., 1978). This relationship is similar to the relationship between intelligence and creativity presented in E. P. Torrance's model. According to this model, intelligence serves as the basis of creativity, so a person with low intelligence will never be creative, although an intellectual may not be a creative person.

Ability/inability . The idea that “every person is capable of anything” is defined by many scientists as incorrect.
This raises the question of what constitutes inability. failure to – (bad abilities) – this such a personality structure that is unfavorable for mastering a certain type of activity, performing it and improving in it . Inability is the degree to which a given individual fails to meet the requirements of a particular activity. Performing any activity while being unable to do it causes not only the appearance of persistent erroneous actions, but also a feeling of dissatisfaction. Inability to perform a particular activity is much more difficult than lack of ability. K.K. Platonov defined it as a negative ability. This is also a certain personality structure, which includes its negative traits for a given activity. Inability, like abilities, is a general quality of personality, or rather, the same quality as abilities, but with a “negative” sign.

Talent. A higher level of manifestation of abilities is called talent. Talent – this is a set of abilities that allows a person to obtain a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty, high perfection and social significance . Just like individual abilities, talent is only opportunity acquiring high skill and significant success in creativity. Talent is a combination of abilities. An individual ability, isolated from others, cannot be defined as a talent, even if it has reached a very high level of development and is clearly expressed.

Talent structure depends primarily on the nature of the demands that one or another activity places on an individual (political, artistic, industrial, scientific, etc.). There are also common structural elements of talent, identified through psychological studies conducted mainly on gifted children. First group features are associated with control and performance. Talented individuals are characterized by attentiveness, composure, and constant readiness to work. Second feature manifests itself in a penchant for work, sometimes even in an irrepressible need to work. Third group features is directly related to intellectual activity - these are features of thinking, speed of thought processes, systematicity of the mind, increased capabilities of analysis and generalization, high productivity of mental activity. In addition, talented people are characterized by a need to engage in a certain type of activity, often a genuine passion for their chosen business. The combination of private abilities of talented people is special, characteristic only of them.

Genius . Genius – highest level manifestations of creative personality. Genius is expressed in creativity that has historical meaning for society.

If we rely on the interpretation of creativity as a largely unconscious process, a genius is a person who creates on the basis of unconscious activity. He is able to experience the widest range of states due to the fact that he is beyond the control of rationality and self-regulation. Consequently, genius primarily creates through the activity of the unconscious creative subject. “Talent creates rationally, on the basis of a well-thought-out plan. Genius is primarily creative, talent is primarily intellectual, although both have common abilities” (V.N. Druzhinin, p. 173). Other characteristics that distinguish genius from talent include versatility, greater originality, and the length of the creative period of life.

Unlike “just creatives,” a person of genius has a very powerful activity of the unconscious. In this regard, he is prone to extreme emotional states. Which of them is a consequence and which is a cause has not yet been established, but a relationship has been identified between creativity and neuroticism.

V.N. Druzhinin offers the following “formula of genius”:

Genius = (high intelligence + even higher creativity) ´ mental activity.

Genius creates new era in your area of ​​expertise. Characteristics of a genius:

· extreme creative productivity;

· mastery of the cultural heritage of the past while decisively overcoming outdated norms and traditions;

· activities that contribute to the progressive development of society.

Test questions for topic No. 21

1. What classifications of abilities do you know?

2. Name the types and levels of abilities.

3. Describe the general abilities of a person.

4. What concepts of abilities do you know?

5. Define the concept of creativity.

TOPIC 22. TRAINING

Lecture 22. Training

Basic concepts:

education; education; education; teaching; behavioral and cognitive theories of learning; operant learning theories; programmed learning; humanistic theories of learning and education; "free model"; "dialogical model"; “personal model”; "enrichment model"; “developmental model”; "activating model"; “formative model”; learning motivation; knowledge; concept; breadth of operation; generality; completeness of the image; dynamism of the image; thesaurus; self-education; self-study.

Education and global educational trends

Education - the process and result of mastering a certain system of knowledge and ensuring on this basis an appropriate level of personal development . Traditionally, education is acquired through the process of training and education in educational institutions under the guidance of teachers. Education in the literal sense of the word means the creation of an image, a certain completeness of education in accordance with a certain age level. Therefore, education is often interpreted as the result of a person’s assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a certain amount of systematized knowledge, skills, abilities, and ways of thinking that the student has mastered. In this case they speak of an educated person. Education- the quality of a developed personality that has mastered universal human experience, with the help of which it becomes able to navigate the environment, adapt to it, protect and enrich it, acquire new knowledge about it and through this continuously improve oneself, i.e. improve your education again. Hence, main criterion education - systematic knowledge and systematic thinking, manifested in the ability to independently restore the missing links in the knowledge system using logical reasoning.

Development of civilization and education

Currently, the main demand of the world elites is the need for an urgent change in the general civilizational development model: a transition from a “consumer society” to an “alternative civilization” and “the concept of sustainable development” (“Agenda for the 21st century”). In order for these requirements to become a reality, it is necessary to prepare a younger generation capable of leading life on the planet into a qualitatively different ecological, sustainable and peaceful direction by the middle of the century. Modern world pedagogy is unlikely to cope with such a task. It is enough to note that all modern content of education (from secondary to high school) is an adaptation of the “fundamentals of science” for a particular age level of knowledge acquisition. For this purpose, an appropriate method of training and education is proposed - contemplative-verbal . In order to prepare for solving promising social and economic problems in the future, it is necessary to have the ability to independently develop, based on the learned experience of previous generations, a new vision of the lifestyle of your generation, to have the ability to active-search And creative and transformative activities.

Problems of modern higher education and ways to solve them

You can call it at least three main problems modern system education. First - This the quality of education , which must meet not only the requirements of the rapidly changing present, but also be tuned to the distant future. Therefore, the way to solve this problem is a new philosophy of advanced education , which is possible if two conditions are met: the fundamentalization of education and the use of innovative teaching. If you receive knowledge that is relevant at the time of training, then by the end of the university or in a couple of years it will be completely outdated, and besides, there will be no holistic vision of the system of professional knowledge. The second problem is pragmatic orientation , which is characterized by an education system that does not promote personal development. The main way to solve this problem can be “developmental” education, in which the student’s personality develops through the use of flexible problem-based learning and creative information technologies. As a result of such education, each person has the opportunity to develop the most optimal way for him to acquire knowledge and the ability in the future not only to use this knowledge, but also to transform and replenish it in accordance with changing conditions. And the last one, the third problem is the inaccessibility of quality education for each student . The most productive way to solve this problem is information support for education: telecommunication technologies, database availability and, of course, distance education.

Training and teaching

Concept of learning.

Education– This is a specially organized, purposeful and controlled process of interaction between the teacher and students. Its main goal is the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities, the formation of a worldview, the development of mental strength and potential capabilities of students.

Learning always has an educational character, despite the fact that its basis is the student’s acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The concept of teaching.

There are many different approaches to defining doctrine. First of all, theoretical and empirical definitions can be distinguished.

The vast majority of authors empirically determine learning as the acquisition of specific experience (knowledge, abilities and skills), types of behavior and activities in a certain area . This point of view is shared not only by Russian psychologists (starting with Vygotsky and Rubinstein), but also by Gestalt psychologists and supporters of the concept of social learning.

However, representatives of the behaviorist movement (Thorndike, Skinner, Tolman, etc.) teaching called acquisition of both knowledge, teachings and skills, as well as logical and creative operations . Some domestic authors also include in the teaching, along with the acquisition of concrete experience, the acquisition of logical thinking techniques. By development they mean the acquisition of the ability to act internally, to act arbitrarily, etc. A.V. Zaporozhets, N.F. Talyzina and others are inclined to this point of view regarding the term “teaching.”

In what follows, we will focus on purposeful And mediated teaching , when it is specifically aimed at acquiring knowledge, it is accompanied by comprehension of information with the active use of sign-symbolic means.

Thus, doctrineis the process of acquiring and consolidating (or changing existing) ways of an individual’s activity . The results of the study are elements of individual experience (knowledge, abilities, skills).

From the point of view of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (P.Ya. Galperin), the learning process consists of four phases. In the first phase on the basis of the mental reflection of the object in the subject, a sensory image of the object arises: the teacher in a visual form offers the student educational material and a problem situation so that the latter understands their meaning, and thereby introduces him into the learning process. In the second phase a mental image is isolated from the mental process as its possible result, i.e. There is an active formation of solution moves and their training with the help of a teacher. In the third phase what the subject has mastered returns again to the mental process and to the activity of the student; this phase is used to consolidate and test knowledge. The fourth phase represents a synthesis of new knowledge with past experience and its practical application.

Behavioral and cognitive learning theories .

One of the most influential representatives of the behavioral movement B. Skinner in his operant conditioning theories relied on the ideas of I.P. Pavlov. The results of his research, although they concerned the learning of animals, were the basis for many pedagogical concepts both in his homeland
(in the USA) and in other countries of the world. Skinner argued that human and animal behavior is determined, predictable, and controlled by the environment. He believed that it is preferable to modify the circumstances in which an individual exists rather than to blame and punish him for actions that deviate from normal behavior. In his opinion, repeatedly confirmed by experiments and practice, positive reinforcement– the most effective method for eliminating negative behavior or action. Therefore, in the United States, in many areas not only of education and upbringing, but also in business and industry, there is a tendency towards increasing encouragement of desirable behavior rather than punishing unwanted behavior.

Experiments on animals also prompted Skinner to come up with the idea of ​​the so-called programmed learning. Skinner's main idea about the role positive reinforcement in teaching has not lost its relevance in the development of computer training programs today. The new generation of training programs not only reduces punishment to a minimum, but also acts only as positive reinforcement.

The largest representative of the cognitive movement, Ulrik Neisser, entered into a scientific debate with him.

Neisser argues that the behavioral approach to learning deprives a person of freedom. Truth makes us free. “Genuine learning is not primarily a method of manipulating students, as some claim, but its direct opposite. And not because education makes a person more militant, but because it allows him to see more alternative possibilities of action” (Neisser, p. 195). Only in a “rich” environment is it formed flexible cognitive structure, suitable for use in many other purposes.

Humanistic theories of learning and education .

In his approach to man and his method of teaching, A. Maslow turns out to be a supporter of internal determination, in contrast to Skinner, who advocated external determination of both behavior and learning.

Understanding education more broadly than traditionally accepted, Abraham Maslow insists that it is necessary first of all to educate the individual humanity. He is not satisfied that learning means only the acquisition of associations, skills and abilities, external, and not internal in relation to character, to the person himself. This is only one, albeit a useful, part of a person's training; it is important and useful in a technological society for the study of objects and things. You can learn driving skills using a behavioral approach, you can teach foreign language using the association method. But it is impossible to learn humanity in this way. In addition, “the world can only tell a person what he deserves, what he is proportionate to, what he has grown to, ... by and large, a person can receive from the world or give to the world only what he himself represents” (A. Maslow, p. .152).

Maslow notes that in education today there are clearly two fundamentally different approaches to learning. The main goal of education in the first approach is the transfer of knowledge necessary in an industrial society. Teachers do not question why they teach what they teach. Their main concern is efficiency—that is, getting more facts into the heads of as many students as possible while spending the least amount of time, money, and effort.

Function and the main objective education and upbringing with a humanistic approach - essential, human. In this case, teachers are engaged in self-actualization of their students, i.e. help a person become as good as he can be.

These two approaches give rise to two types of education: external And internal . The humanistic approach is characterized by internally education, which ultimately allows the student to acquire such a set of knowledge and skills that allow him to become “ a good man" Then the problem of education will shift not to finding a way to acquire information at greater or less cost, but to how a person can most effectively understand and personally evaluate this information for inclusion in his experience for further use in any area of ​​life: at home and at work. It is with this approach that the acquired knowledge becomes meaningful, as does the learning process itself.

Domestic psychologically oriented teaching models .

In the practice of domestic education, constant attempts have been made to introduce psychologically oriented models, which are built taking into account the psychological mechanisms of the student’s mental development and which are associated with the creation of specific innovative technologies for both school and university education. All the models presented below are arranged in the form of a hierarchical “ladder” depending on the priority in their goals of either the prevalence of the student’s “freedom of subjective choice” or an increase in the volume of “control influences” of the teacher.

For "free model" characterized by an informal attitude to the learning process - in this case, there is no traditional class-lesson system, mandatory curricula, monitoring and assessment of students' knowledge. The key psychological element is “freedom of individual choice.” This model takes into account as much as possible internal initiative student.

"Dialogical model" involves the targeted development of students’ intellect, which is understood as the “deep development of the mind.” Education is aimed at students mastering the cultural foundations of human cognition. They develop dialogism as the main definition of human thought. In such a model, a dialogue between knowledge and ignorance constantly occurs, since knowledge in its highest forms turns out to be full of doubt and problematicity. Adherents of this model recognize the unpredictability and originality of an individual’s intellectual development, including the ability even for a child to learn independently, “alone” (at home, reading a book). Instead of textbooks, this model uses texts as works of the relevant culture. The key psychological element is the “dialogue nature of individual consciousness” (V.S. Bibler, S.Yu. Kurganov et al., 1991).

The term itself "personal model" assumes that the purpose of training in this case is the general development of the student: his cognitive, emotional-volitional, moral and aesthetic capabilities. Training occurs at a high level of difficulty. On initial stage In teaching, the leading role belongs to theoretical knowledge. The key psychological element is “holistic personal growth.” It is achieved through a constantly trusting atmosphere of communication, the focus of teachers on the development of different aspects of the personality, and the consistent complication of the knowledge offered for assimilation (L.N. Zankov, 1990; Amonashvili, 1993).

Close in some elements to the personality model "enrichment model". Within its framework, by complicating the mental (mental) experience of the student, his intellectual education is carried out. It is assumed that each of us is “filled” with our own mental experience and has an individual range of possible growth of our intellectual powers (has its own “zone of proximal development” L.S. Vygotsky). Therefore, the student is offered specially designed educational texts, the content of which affects the main components of individual mental experience (M.A. Kholodnaya et al., 1997).

The “developmental model” is aimed at developing the student’s theoretical thinking. It was developed with a focus on younger schoolchildren. Much attention was paid to developing the ability to generalize. Together with the teacher, the child learned to think according to the principle “from the general to the particular” (D.B. Elkonin, V.V. Davydov et al., 1986).

Aimed at increasing the level of cognitive activity "activating model". To achieve this goal, problematic situations are included in the educational process, reliance is placed on cognitive needs and intellectual feelings. This model is closest to the traditional learning model. “Cognitive interest” is the key psychological element of this model (A.M. Matyushkin, M.N. Skatkin, etc.).

We complete the analysis psychologically oriented models training so-called "formative model", which is based on the activity approach in psychology and pedagogy. In such an educational model, the controlling influence of the teacher’s “commands” is great. Creative activity is also a process performed at a conscious level. A variation of this model is programmed and algorithmic learning. Therefore, the key psychological element is “mental action” (N.F. Talyzina, V.P. Bespalko et al., 1975, 1983).

Thus, « free model» meets the criterion of “maximum freedom of subjective choice with a minimum of control influences,” and the last one on our list is « formative model» corresponds to the opposite criterion: “maximum control influences – minimum freedom of subjective choice.”

However, each of these models faces a serious question: if you choose a strategy to provide solid knowledge and specific ways to solve problems, to form “mental actions with predetermined qualities,” then the boundaries of personal intellectual freedom are initially determined. If you provide complete intellectual freedom, then there is a high probability of developing a personality incapable of intense and productive intellectual work. This dilemma is not currently resolved by any of the existing teaching models.

Psychology of educational activities
(psychology of teaching)

The term "knowledge" has several meanings. In the universal, philosophical significance it means humanity’s reflection of objective reality in the form of facts, ideas, concepts and laws of science (that is, it is the collective experience of humanity, the result of people’s knowledge of objective reality). From the point of view of the psychology of teaching knowledge– These are ideas and concepts about objective or subjective reality acquired through individual experience or learned from previous generations.

Knowledge acquisition includes the perception of educational material, its comprehension, memorization and practical application.

Education of scientific concepts. Scientific concepts are presented in subjective reality person in the form of ideas and concepts. Concept– one of the logical forms of thinking, the highest level of generalization, characteristic of verbal-logical thinking. A concept is a form of knowledge through which the universal, individual and particular of a certain class of objects or phenomena of reality are simultaneously displayed. Depending on the degree of generalization and properties reflected in the concept of objects and phenomena, concepts can be concrete or abstract. There is a difference between everyday and scientific concepts. The most abstract scientific concepts are called categories.

V.V. Davydov, one of the creators of the “developmental model” of teaching, proposed the following scheme for the formation of concepts:

perception ® representation ® concept.

The success of the transition from a reflection of real objects or teacher descriptions to a concept depends on the student’s ability to identify what is essential, that is, making a generalization not according to the so-called “formal generality” (classifying objects to one class only on the basis of external characteristics).

Through scientific concepts, socio-historical experience is assimilated, while with the help of images, historical experience is correlated with subjective experience. Assimilation scientific concept possible by abstracting from everything logically unimportant from the point of view of universal human (tribal) experience. The image cannot be torn away from the sensory basis on which it arises. Creating an image is always based on individual (subjective) experience.

A change in any attribute included in the content of a concept often leads to a distortion of this concept and to incorrect assimilation. When forming concepts, it is necessary to be distracted, to “break away” from everything unimportant in it. personal experience, “obscuring” the essence of the acquired concept.

However, we emphasize that any knowledge there is an alloy concepts and images.

the individual’s activity in assimilation of educational information (object of study, content of the academic discipline). “The activity of a subject always meets some of his needs and is aimed at an object that can satisfy this need. This object motivates and directs the subject’s activity. Due to this understanding of activity, teaching is an actual activity only when it satisfies a cognitive need. The knowledge that the teaching is aimed at mastering appears in this case as a motive in which a cognitive need has found its objective embodiment... If there is no such need, then he either will not study, or will study for the sake of satisfying some other needs. In the latter case, learning is no longer an activity, since the acquisition of knowledge in itself does not lead to the satisfaction of the subject’s needs, but serves only as an intermediate goal. In this case, teaching is an action that realizes another activity; knowledge, being the goal of action, does not serve as a motive, because the learning process is not stimulated by them, but by what the subject learns for, which leads to the satisfaction of the need behind it. Regardless of what need the teaching is aimed at satisfying - whether it is specific to it or not, it is always realized by an action or a chain of actions.” As can be seen from the above quote, in psychology teaching is considered as an activity only when teaching satisfies the cognitive need of the individual, i.e. a conscious need by the subject to learn something new about the chosen object. Otherwise, learning is considered as an action in some other activity. In relation to teaching in a higher military school, one cannot argue so unambiguously, since if the teaching satisfies any conscious need of the subject, it represents an activity. For example, the vital need to obtain a well-paid specialty may be associated with the study of such objects, which the subject of the study would never study on their own. Most likely, learning should be considered as an activity as an ideal for constructing learning, in which the subject of learning would not only perform prescribed actions, but would also have the opportunity to realize that own (or future professional) need that is satisfied by studying what is recommended by the teacher (the program of the academic discipline). ) object, i.e. consciously accept the object being studied as a motive for learning, plan this activity taking into account one’s capabilities (or choose one of the recommended plans) and independently implement the actions included in this plan (or transformed, taking into account available funds and one’s own capabilities). Departing from this ideal (for example, due to limited time resources), the teacher can consciously assess the losses that will occur in the activity of the subject of the teaching, and provide measures to compensate for these forced losses. The possibility of conscious choice, planning of one’s activities to master educational material, at least in time, taking into account the need to satisfy one’s other needs, makes the subject of learning more active.

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