Western European culture of the 19th and 20th centuries
1. General characteristics of socio-economic and cultural realities in Europe 19
century
2. Sociocultural situation of the 20th century
1.Culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations.
By the end of the 18th century. capitalism as a system is fully formed. He covered everything
industries of material production,
which led to the corresponding
transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy,
art, education, everyday life, public consciousness).
The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of internal contradictions
bourgeois society: the clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main
classes of the bourgeoisie and proletariat, polarization of society, rapid rise
material culture and the beginning of personal alienation.
In the 19th century There is a radical revolution associated with the appearance of a machine that
alienates a person from nature, breaking the usual ideas about his
dominant role, and turns a person into a being dependent on a machine. IN
conditions of mechanization, a person goes to the periphery of spiritual life, breaks away from
spiritual foundations. A place of craft work associated with personality and creativity
masters, took up monotonous work.
Spiritual culture of the 19th century. developed and functioned under the influence of two
the most important factors: success in the field of philosophy and natural science. Presenter
dominant culture of the 19th century. there was science.
Various value orientations were based on two starting positions:
establishing and affirming the values of the bourgeois way of life, on the one hand,
and critical rejection of bourgeois society, on the other. Hence the appearance
such dissimilar phenomena in the culture of the 19th century: romanticism, critical realism,
symbolism, naturalism, positivism, etc.
2.XX century is the most dynamic in the history of human civilization and this
could not but affect the entire character of his culture.
In the history of culture of the XX century. Three periods can be distinguished:
1) the beginning of the 20th century in 1917 (acute dynamics of socio-political processes,
variety of artistic forms, styles, philosophical concepts);
2) 2030 (radical restructuring, some stabilization of cultural dynamics,
formation of a new form of socialist culture),
3) post-war 40s. the entire second half of the 20th century. (formation time
regional cultures, rise national identity, occurrence
international movements, the rapid development of technology, the emergence of new advanced
technologies, active development of territories, merging science with production, change
scientific paradigms, the formation of a new worldview). Culture is a system
everything is interconnected and mutually determined.
At the end of the 20th century, culture European type has spread to others
continents to the countries of Asia and America, as well as to Australia and New Zealand
during the 20th century common features and trends typical of Western
culture in general. Human activity formed in the past century
a single universal culture, which included:
industrialization of production and mass consumption;
unified means of transportation and information transmission;
international science and education accessible to almost everyone;
stylistic and genre diversity in art.
Western culture of the 20th century, based on entrepreneurship, is exclusively
mobile and dynamic. Its main characters were people involved in business
and those who know how to make money. Their behavior was characterized by individualism, practicality,
the desire for constant comfort, success and enrichment. At the same time, Western
20th century culture was open to the generation of new ideas, samples, concepts,
orientation. Its dominant feature was the idea of transformative human activity, as
its main purpose. In turn, culture was seen as
mediator between man and nature.
Artistic culture of the 20th century
Its specific feature was the presence of two artistic systems:
modernism and postmodernism.
Realism in the culture of the 20th century is the continuing influence of the culture of the 19th century. Along with
direct tradition inherited from this century, two new trends are emerging in
realism
1.Pictorial realism
2.Socialist realism
3. Neorealism
4.Hyperrealism
In line with pictorial realism, landscape-lyrical art has reached a special rise.
painting in which the character and state of nature were combined with moods and
human feelings (I Grabar, K. Yuon). They worked in the genre of theatrical portraits
M. Vrubel, P. Kustodiev, V. Serov.
Social realism represents a form of realism that focuses on reflection
social reality, promoting socialist ideas in the forms
artistic ideal. Democratic beliefs or sentiments of artists
socialist realism, their humanistic views, feelings of the drama of life are found
reflected in their work (early Picasso, A. Matisse, M Saryan, P Kuznetsov).
Particular attention should be paid to the Mexican school of neorealism, the muralists, the essence of which
consisted of decorating public buildings with cycles of frescoes from the history of the country,
the life of the people, their struggle. The main character of these frescoes is the people. (D. Rivera,
D. Siqueiros, X. Orozco, R. Guttuso).
In the 80s new forms of realism emerged, called “angry realism”,
hyperrealism, or photo-documentary painting, naive realism, folklore
realism, etc. Modernism
Translated from French, “modernism” means “new, modern.” The brightest
directions of modernism that showed themselves most dynamically in the first half
XX century: Dadaism, surrealism, expressionism, fauvism, suprematism, cubism,
avant-gardeism, existentialism, abstractionism.
The following had a great influence on the practice of modernism:
ideas of irrational voluntarism of A. Schopenhauer and F. Nietzsche;
the doctrine of intuition by A. Bergson and N. Lossky;
psychoanalysis 3. Freud and C.G. Cabin boy;
existentialism of M. Heidegger, J.P. Sartre and A. Camus;
theories social philosophy Frankfurt School T. Adorno and G. Marcuse.
The general emotional mood of modernism can be expressed by the following phrase:
the chaos of modern life, its disintegration contribute to disorder and
the loneliness of a person, his conflicts are insoluble and hopeless, and the circumstances,
in which he is placed are irresistible.
The characteristic features of the Art Nouveau style were:
the desire to aestheticize the human environment;
emphasized activity of influencing life processes;
entertainment and decorativeness.
Fauvism is considered the first movement of modernist art in the 20th century.
French criticism called a group of young artists the Fauves, which included
included A. Matisse, A. Derain, M. Vlaminck, A. Marche and others. Their joint
exhibition activity was most intense in 1902-1907
Another direction of modernism was Dadaism (fr dadaisme from duda horse,
skate; figuratively incoherent baby talk) avant-garde
direction in Western European art, which developed mainly in
Switzerland, France and Germany during the First World War (1916).
Dadaism arose in Switzerland among the intelligentsia, inclined in its protest
against war to a kind of artistic shocking by the Founders of Dadaism
were the poets T. Tzara and R. Gulsenbeck, the artist G. Arp and others. Dadaists
published manifestos and the magazine "Cabaret Voltaire" (1916-1917), with their
with improvised scandalous theatrical performances they tried to break
established ideas about existing types and genres of art.
Surrealism (from the French surrealisme, over-realism, super-realism) avant-garde
direction to artistic culture XX century, which proclaimed the image of the sphere
unconscious main goal art.
Surrealism manifested itself very brightly and effectively in painting. The principle itself
the connection of the incompatible is visual, and therefore picturesque. Canvases
the surrealists were instantly shocked. Complex compositions
surrealist paintings combined the “chaos of automatic splashing out
subconscious" with photographically accurate recreation of real details and
items. In this regard, the work of the famous
Spanish artist S. Dali.
Expressionism (from Latin expressio expression) is an artistic movement in
art of Germany, which developed in the first quarter of the 20th century. Same as for
Fauvists, for Expressionists color became the basis for the organization of artistic
Nineteenth century, iron,
Truly a cruel age!
A. Blok
Culture of the 19th century is the culture of established bourgeois relations. Capitalism as a system is fully formed. It covered all sectors of material production, which entailed corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness). The culture of this period is characterized by a reflection of the internal contradictions of bourgeois society. The clash of opposing tendencies, the struggle of the main classes - the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the polarization of society, the rapid rise of material culture and the beginning of the alienation of the individual determined the nature of the spiritual culture of that time. European culture of the 19th century. is a reflection of those contradictory principles that a developed bourgeois society represents, but, nevertheless, it has no equal in the depth of penetration into the existence and spiritual world of man in terms of creative tension in science, literature, philosophy and art
Among the socio-economic and political factors, the decisive ones were social revolutions And revolutionary movement. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept many European countries and represented one of the most important stages of the class struggle. They contributed to the establishment and development of capitalism, the solution of pressing historical problems, in particular, the unification of Italy and Germany, and awakened in progressive humanity the desire for freedom from social oppression and injustice.
Had a huge influence on the development of the Western European world industrial Revolution , which ended precisely in the 19th century, which led to a significant restructuring of work and the objective world. Its immediate result is an unprecedented increase in the productivity of social labor. Practical needs stimulated the rapid development of science. XIX century - this is the heyday classical natural history, creation unified system of sciences . At this time, the connection between science and production becomes closer. The first research laboratories working for industry appear. Discoveries in various fields of natural science are increasingly influencing the development of leading industries: metallurgy, energy, mechanical engineering, instrument making, transport, and the chemical industry.
To the most striking achievements of the industrial revolution of the 19th century. This includes the use of electricity in industry, new means of communication (telegraph, telephone), drive devices for working machines, in many technological processes of various industries, in the creation of incandescent lamps for lighting rooms and streets. The creation of a steam locomotive, internal combustion engine, telephone, radio, cinema and much more amounted to a revolution in science and technology.
The formation has begun industrial society , radically different from the pre-industrial one that preceded it. Industrial production, associated with constantly developing technology, with the release of new goods and the creation of the service sector, as K. Marx emphasized, played a great civilizing role. Tearing huge masses of people out of their former social structures By undermining these very structures, industrialization becomes the driving force that introduces the masses into new relationships and accustoms them to a new way of life, rhythm of work, discipline, expands literacy and horizons of existence.
Turbulent political and social processes have predetermined changes in the forms of government structure. France underwent especially significant upheavals, where over the course of a century the Directory, the Consulate, the Empire were established twice, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, the Republic was proclaimed twice, and even the Paris Commune took place, when the working class took power for a short time.
Spiritual culture of the 19th century. developed and functioned under the influence of two important factors: successes in the field philosophy And natural sciences. The leading dominant culture of the 19th century. was the science.
Continuous revolutionary upheavals occurred in the 19th century. V science. During this historical period, science was glorified R. Mayer, J. Joule, G. Helmholtz, who discovered the laws of conservation and transformation of energy, which provided a unified basis for all branches of physics and chemistry. The creation was of great importance in understanding the world T. Schwann And M. Schleiden cell theory, which showed the uniform structure of all living organisms. C. Darwin , who created the theory of evolution in biology, introduced the idea of development in natural science. Thanks to the periodic system of elements discovered by brilliant Russian scientists D. I. Mendeleev , the internal connection between all known types of matter has been proven. Discovery of the electron, radium, transformation of chemical elements, creation A. Einstein theory of relativity and quantum theory M. Planck marked a breakthrough into the field of the microworld and high speeds.
In the 19th century significant development has been achieved philosophical thought. It was prepared by the teachings of I. Kant and I. Fichte. Based on their provisions, a romantic theory was created, the foundations of an objective-idealistic philosophy, formalized in a coherent teaching, were laid F. D. Schelling (1775-1854). Schelling saw in art the sphere where the oppositions of the theoretical and moral-practical are overcome; the aesthetic principle appears as “balance”, complete harmony of conscious and unconscious activity, the coincidence of nature and freedom, the triumph of feelings and moral principles.
The objective-idealistic concept was further developed in the works of the largest German philosopher G. Hegel , which gave it completeness in the form of the basic laws of dialectics.
XIX century gave to the world K. Marx And F. Engels who created in the middle of the century materialistic doctrine . K. Marx and F. Engels asserted the primacy of matter and, using Hegelian dialectics, developed the concept of historical materialism, according to which the history of mankind appears as a change of formations (methods of production) and class struggle. Their teaching, which received further development, went down in history under the name Marxism.
Under the influence of atheistic tendencies in society, society is experiencing a serious crisis. church. New religions are penetrating into Europe, the concepts of separation of church and state, freedom of conscience, religion, secularization of education, etc. are being born. Secularization processes undermine the influence of religion as an integrating principle. Religious conflicts are weakening, but at the same time the sense of unity of believers is being undermined. These processes do not mean a break in social ties, but they largely change the nature of these ties. The unity of society is largely determined by as national unity.
The development of production meant the introduction of increasingly complex technologies, which was impossible without a certain minimum of public education. The Enlightenment contributed to the abolition of many medieval remnants in the spheres of law, legal proceedings, art, morality, and political culture. It led to the gradual democratization of society, as ever wider sections of the population began to enjoy legal protection, acquired the opportunity to participate in civil life, and could become involved in cultural achievements.
Artistic culture of the 19th century. The main artistic directions in the development of European culture in the 19th century. There were classicism (which was becoming obsolete), romanticism, and realism.
Romanticism– (French romantisme; from Middle Ages, roman – novel). expressed disappointment in the ideas of the Great French Revolution. Romantic art is characterized by aversion to bourgeois reality, a decisive rejection of the rationalistic principles of the Enlightenment and classicism, and distrust of the cult of reason. The Romantics affirmed the dignity of the human person, the intrinsic value of its inner world and spiritual and creative life. This was embodied in the depiction of extraordinary characters and strong passions, aspirations for boundless freedom. The revolution proclaimed individual freedom, but the same revolution gave rise to the spirit of acquisitiveness and selfishness. These two sides of personality (the pathos of freedom and individualism) manifested themselves very complexly in the romantic concept of the world and man.
Romantics denied the necessity and possibility objective reflection In reality, they proclaimed the subjective arbitrariness of the creative imagination to be the basis of art. The plots for romantic works were chosen to include exceptional events and extraordinary settings in which the characters acted.
Originating in Germany, where the foundations of the romantic worldview and romantic aesthetics were laid, romanticism is rapidly spreading throughout Europe. It covered all spheres of spiritual culture: literature, music, theater, humanities, plastic arts. Representatives of romanticism - Byron, Heine, Hoffmann(in literature), Schumann, Wagner, Chopin- in music, Delacroix, Gericault– in painting, etc.
Realism. In a realistic light, the phenomena of reality appear in all their complexity, versatility and richness of aesthetic properties. The principle of generalization becomes typing. The truthfulness of details and the presentation of typical characters acting in typical circumstances are the main principles of realism. Realism did not oppose romanticism, it was its ally in the fight against the idealization of bourgeois public relations, for the national and historical originality of works of art (color of place and time).
By the middle of the century, realism became the dominant trend in European culture.
Realism arose in France and England under conditions of established capitalist relations. Social contradictions and shortcomings of the capitalist system determined the sharply critical attitude of realist writers towards it. They denounced money-grubbing, blatant inequality, selfishness, and hypocrisy. In his ideological purposefulness he becomes critical realism. At the same time, the work of great realist writers is permeated with the ideas of humanism and social justice. Representatives of realism: O. Balzac, V. Hugo, G. Flaubert, B. Shaw G. Ibsen and others.
In the second half of the 19th century there appeared new artistic and aesthetic theories.
Symbolism. The Symbolists, focusing their attention on artistic expression through ideas beyond human sensory perception, sought to break through visible reality to the “hidden realities,” the supra-temporal ideal essence of the world. The leading trends of modern art have already appeared here - longing for spiritual freedom, a tragic premonition of social catastrophes, distrust of age-old cultural and spiritual values, mysticism.
The painful decline of civilization is obvious, indisputable for the outstanding French poet Charles Baudelaire . He is a harbinger of French symbolism. His main book was called "The flowers of Evil". This is hatred of the bourgeois world, anarchic rebellion, a longing for harmony. The poet combines these feelings with a recognition of the insurmountability of evil: “True travelers are those who set out on a journey, leaving the past behind”
Naturalism. A transformation specific to the end of the 19th century occurs with the realistic tradition - the degeneration of realism into naturalism. Supporters of this direction proceeded from the idea of complete predetermination of fate, will, spiritual world human social environment, everyday life, heredity, physiology. The largest representative and theorist of this movement is Emile Zola . Zola painted a broad panorama of French society, covering in it the life of all segments of the country's population. In his best novels “The Belly of Paris”, “The Trap”, “Germinal”, “Money”, “Destruction”, the writer depicted social contradictions with great realistic force. However, the idea of the laws of society as biological laws limited his realism.
Impressionism. Under the influence of representatives of critical realism painting (Courbet, Daumier), a new direction in art appeared - impressionism (from French. Impression - impression). The aesthetic attitudes of this direction were characterized by the desire to combine cognitive tasks with the search for new forms of expression of the artist’s unique subjective world, to convey one’s fleeting perceptions, to capture real world in all its variability and mobility. Its history is relatively short - only 12 years. Representatives – Claude Manet, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Pierre Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley. The great French sculptor was a contemporary and ally of the Impressionists Auguste Rodin
The main features of impressionism were developed in post-impressionism . Prominent representatives of this trend were artists P. Cezanne, V. Van Gogh, P. Gauguin . They began working simultaneously with the Impressionists and were influenced by them in their work. Each of them, however, represented a bright individuality and left a deep mark on art.
Thus, the industrial structure of society meant a deep qualitative transformation not only of the nature of production, but also of the prevailing social structures and culture of society. Great changes that took place in the 19th century. the development of philosophy, science and technology, had a huge influence on the development of literature and art Western Europe.
The importance of modern culture for the development of world culture is seen in the following:
· the formation of bourgeois society and the industrial type of civilization. It was the era of bourgeois revolutions that revealed the tragedy and inhumanity of violent changes in society;
· the formation and strengthening of a rationalistic approach to reality, which was expressed in the formation of a new science, both experimental and theoretical. Scientific achievements The 17th century created the prerequisites for the further development of fundamental sciences. The main direction in the development of philosophical thought is the theory of knowledge;
· The Enlightenment awakened social thought and social feeling in Europe;
Great social upheaval. French revolution, which began as a triumph of Reason and did not affect the multifaceted inner world of man, ended tragically;
· formation classical philosophy(late 18th - early 19th centuries) in Germany; the emergence of Marxism;
· The 19th century became a century of contrasts: the flourishing of spiritual culture and the spiritual impoverishment of society are marked not only by philosophy, but also by art, as well as the human sciences that emerged during this period;
· in the art of the New Age, new styles and trends are being formed, striving to embody in their images a person as a deeply and strongly feeling being, as a freedom-loving and proud being;
· the artistic exploration of the world in the 19th century created a type of romantic and realistic hero. Art deepens into an understanding of the foundations of the world, while moving from the “exceptional” to the “ordinary”, into the depths of the subjective worldview.
« XIX century,- says A. Hauser, - begins in 1830, after the “July Monarchy” the social foundations of the “new order” are laid. By 1830, mostly formed character traits XIX century. The bourgeoisie completely seizes political power and is aware of it. The aristocracy disappears from the historical scene and leads only a private life. The victory of the middle class is certain and undeniable. Romanticism becomes, without a doubt, bourgeois art and it could not develop without the liberation of the middle class, although the romantics try to behave in an “aristocratic” manner and appeal to the aristocracy as their own public. Every artist finds himself between two rows, between the world of the conservative aristocracy and the world of the progressive bourgeoisie.
Nothing better reflects the tension between the producers and consumers of art of the 1830 generation than the heroes of the short stories Stendhal And Balzac. Tragic heroism, the will to self-affirmation and faith in self-improvement give way to a predisposition to compromise, a tendency to live without a goal, to die unnoticed. The modern novella was the first to create a hero with remorse, with his conflict with the social environment, forced to recognize the mores and conventions of society, at least as the rules of the game.
With the growing politicization of life between 1830 and 1848, the tendency to politicize literature also intensified. During this period there is almost no politically indifferent work, including the pacifying “art for art’s sake,” which also had a political connotation. Newspapers collaborate with specialists and publish articles of general interest, mainly descriptions of travel, scandals, and legal information. But short stories, published in parts, become the main means of attracting attention. Everyone reads them. Literary work turns into a “product” in the full sense of the word, has its own price tariff, is written according to a model and comes out on time. Prices dictate demand and have nothing to do with the artistic value of the work. The newspaper novella means an unprecedented democratization of literature and the absolute leveling of the reading public. Never has art been so unanimously accepted by such socially and culturally diverse social strata and perceived with such similar feelings (A. Hauser).
Romanticism continues to exist, but being transformed and rethought. The anti-clerical and anti-legitimist tendency turns into a revolutionary philosophy. The people won and we are talking about giving the opportunity to express the revolutionary impulse in art (George Sand, Eugene Sue, Lamartine, Hugo, Dumas, Musset, Marimet, Balzac). "Art for art's sake", originating from romanticism, is a consequence and a certain result of the development of romantic aesthetic theory. “Art for art’s sake” becomes for the romantics an “ivory tower” in which their practical activity is confined. The bourgeoisie, having accepted “art for art’s sake,” extols the ideal nature of art and the high status of the artist, placing him above political parties, and locks art into a kind of “golden cage.” "Art for art's sake" presents, undoubtedly, the most aesthetically controversial problem. Nothing more poignantly expresses the dual nature of aesthetic vision. A work of art, as noted by A. Hauser, was compared to a window through which one can observe life without taking into account the structure, refraction and color of the window glass.
The main artistic trends of 1830: “social art”, “school of good manners” and “art for art’s sake” - are interconnected in a complex and contradictory way.
Naturalism was not a single artistic concept, it changed over time, each time striving towards certain goals and limiting itself in its interpretation of life to particular phenomena.
It was in the 19th century that the concept of “world culture” emerged. There is a unity of two sides of cultural development: the tendency towards universalization and mutual enrichment on the one hand, and the formation or identification of a national principle, on the other. In painting and sculpture, along with classicism, which is increasingly acquiring the features of an academic scheme, a strong romantic direction; has been developing since the 40s realism("naturalism"). From the last third of the 19th century to a turning point for Western European realism time, positions academicism are strengthened again, it becomes official art.
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CLASSICISM.
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ROMANTICISM.
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ABSTRACTIONISM.
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VANGUARD
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IMPRESSIONISM. POST-IMPRESSIONISM.
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MODERNISM.
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POSTMODERN.
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REALISM.
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5. Moskovsky M.
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4. Dabaghyan E. S.
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5. Vetrova T. N.
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6. Milyutin E. V.
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10. Dominican culture: origins and today // Latin America. – 1983. - No. 8. – P. 75 – 87.
11. Kantor A. M.
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17. Aladin V. G.
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18. Experience of interethnic relations: (Interaction of cultures of Latin America) // Latin America. – 1997. - No. 2. – P. 70 – 81.
19. Zemskov V. B.
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22. Tananaeva L. I.
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23. Shemyakin Ya. G.
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24. Shemyakin Ya. G.
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24. Shemyakin Ya. G.
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25. Shemyakin Ya. G.
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26. Zemskov V. B.
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27. Sizonenko A. I.
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28. Yushkova O. A.
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29. Tananaeva L. I.
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30. Ceramic products of the ancient Mayans // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 11. – 1 p. (region); S. 4.
31. La Garza de M.
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33. Ershova G. G.
Lyrics of the ancient Mayans // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 9. – P. 108-133.
34. What place did music occupy in Aztec society? // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 3. – P. 3. (region).
35. Baglay V. E.
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36. Vetrova T. N.
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37. Sanjines J.
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38. Vetrova T. N.
Continuation of the biography: (Brazilian Cinema Week) // Latin America. – 1981. - No. 7. – P. 78 – 84.
39. Vetrova T. N., Sukhostat T. N.
Patriarch of Brazilian cinema (Nelson Pereira Dos Santos) // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 7. – P. 112 – 124.
40. A New Look on Brazilian cinema // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 7. – P. 75 – 82.
41. Vetrova T. N.
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42. Valero A.
On the history of Russian cinema // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 12. – P. 134 – 140.
43. Vetrova T. N.
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44. “...Cuban feature cinema at a creative crossroads” // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 5. – P. 106 – 110.
45. Shatunovskaya I.K.
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46. Vetrova T. N.
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47. Silyunas V. Yu.
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48. Bykova I. S.
First Latin American ... [film festival] // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 5. – P. 85 – 91.
49. Shatunovskaya I.K.
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50. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Latin American cinema: people and destinies // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 12. – P. 62 – 74.
51. Shatunovskaya I.K.
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52. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Tashkent - 82: National cinema fights and reflects // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 11. – P. 109 – 122.
53. Shatunovskaya I.K.
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54. Konstantinova N. S.
Carnival country [Brazil] // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 4. – P. 132 – 145.
55. Konstantinova N. S.
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56. Khait V.L.
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57. Dunaeva K. A.
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58. Khait V.L.
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59. Tananaeva L. I.
About Cuban painting of the 19th century // Latin America. – 1999. - No. 1. – P. 48 – 71.
60. Sheleshneva N. A.
Argentine graphics: social irony and poetic metaphor // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 8. – P. 105 – 110.
61. Davityants T. D.
main topic creativity - children: [About the Bolivian artist R. Boulanger] // Latin America. – 1979. - No. 5. – P. 104 – 105.
62. Davityants T. D.
Marina Nunens and Bolivian sculpture // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 8. – P. 81 – 89.
63. Khait V.L.
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64. Krauts T. I.
Bruno Jrji: skill and inspiration: [About the Brazilian sculptor] // Latin America. – 1979. - No. 5. – P. 155 – 164.
65. Khait V.L.
Portinari Brazilian: [Painting of Brazil] // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 2. – P. 101 – 113.
66. Merzhanov S. B.
Oscar Niemeyer - architect and citizen // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 9. – P. 71 – 80.
67. Niemeyer O.
“The struggle to transform society is more important than architecture” // Latin America. –1984. - No. 2. – P. 95 – 106.
68. Khait V.L.
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69. Sukhostat A. A.
How many angels can fit on the tip of a needle?: [On the work of the Venezuelan artist Bracho] // Latin America. – 1995. - No. 8. – P. 94 – 97.
70. Khait V.L.
Modern architecture [of Venezuela] // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 12. – P. 125 – 133.
71. Sheleshneva N. A.
Painting in search of national self-expression: [Venezuela] // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 12. – P. 141-143.
72. Khait V.L.
73. “The culture of the Russian people is close to me in spirit”: [About the Cuban artist O. Godinez] // Latin America. – 1995. - No. 10. – P. 73 – 76.
74. “Architecture is an orchestra in which many instruments sound”: [A. L. Quintana] // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 1. – P. 124 – 134.
75. Mosquera H.
Young Cuban painting: primitivism and modernity // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 1. – P. 113 – 117.
76. History on the canvases of the Cuban artist [H. M. Fernandez] // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 6. – P. 88.
77. Vasilyeva S. V.
Reflect the truth of life: [On the work of Cuban artists] // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 12. – P. 108 – 114.
78. Our Nues humor is ear-splitting: [On the work of the Cuban cartoonist Rene de la Nues] // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 12. – P. 123 – 130.
79. “He will remain in our memory forever”: (Dedicated to the Cuban artist Rene Portocarrero)
80. Otero L.
The drama of Portocarrero’s ornaments // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 12. – P. 71 – 74.
81. Barnett M.
When mythology lives in the heart: (On the work of the Cuban artist L. Zúñiga) // Latin America. – 1984. - No. 9. – P. 109 – 111.
82. Otero L.
Wifredo Lam - artist of three worlds: [Life and work of a Cuban artist] // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 2. – P. 90 – 98.
83. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Artist, perform a miracle: [H. David - cartoonist] // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 5. – P. 120 – 125.
84. Belovolov Yu. G.
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85. Cuban painting through the prism of the revolution // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 11. – P. 130-139.
86. Thomas Sanchez: “... by painting landscapes, I get to know my homeland better” // Latin America. – 1984. - No. 4. – P. 84 – 85.
87. Levykin E. V.
Watercolor art by Ignacio Beteta // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 10. – P. 120 – 125.
88. Semenova I.K.
Colors of Mexico: [About the artist I. Barrios] // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 3. – P. 111 – 115.
89. Kosichev L. A.
About the fate of Diego Rivera’s paintings: [Mexico] // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 1. – P. 126 – 132.
90. Kozlova E. A.
The origins of Rufino Tamayo’s painting: [Mexico] // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 9. – P. 124 – 134.
91. Artist – wrestler: (exhibition of D. A. Siqueiros in Moscow) // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 7. – P. 108 – 109.
92. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Devotion to the Origins: (On the work of the Mexican artist J. Soriano) // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 10. – P. 125 – 129.
93. “A work of art is always a message to its contemporaries”: (Interview with Mexican artist Victorfederico) // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 5. – P. 119 – 122.
94. Kozlova E. A.
Mexican Universe: [About the work of R. Tamayo] // Latin America. – 1990. - No. 3. – P. 111 – 118.
95. Kosichev V. A.
Brush and paints of Pablo O'Higgins // Latin America. - 1982. - No. 6. - P. 103 - 111.
96. Sheleshneva N. A.
Orozco: at the origins of Mexican painting of the twentieth century // Latin America. – 1983. - No. 11. – P. 127 – 129.
97. Sheleshneva N. A., Ilyin S. F.
Artist-philosopher: [On the work of the Mexican artist A. Bustos] // Latin America. – 1983. - No. 9. – P. 122 – 130.
98. Sychev S. S.
“So that the world may triumph”: In memory of D. A. Siqueiros // Latin America. – 1984. - No. 2. – P. 114 – 124.
99. Beltran A.
“Folk Art should contribute to the development of the nation’s self-awareness”: [On the folk art of Mexico] // Latin America. – 1979. - No. 6. – P. 156 – 164.
100. Hight V.L.
Exhibition of Mexican architecture // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 11. – P. 106 – 108.
101. Cardenel E.
Culture of the new Nicaragua // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 11. – P. 5 – 14.
102. Tananaeva L. I.
The formation of colonial art in the Viceroyalty of Peru // Latin America. – 2000. - No. 6. – P. 87 – 104., No. 9. – P. 60 – 76.
103. Mironenko O. Yu.
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104. Garces M.
Rebellious art [Chilean wall painting] // Latin America. – 1990. - No. 10. – P. 130 – 133.
105. Fedotova E. D., Khan-Magomedova
Art that calls for resistance: [Artists of Chile: art in exile] // Latin America. – 1979. - No. 3. – P. 179 – 183.
106. Carranza S.
“Saving the values of Indian culture is the artist’s duty // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 12. – P. 57 – 61.
107. Pynina-Voitsekhovskaya S. V.
Song about the Indians of Ecuador (About the work of the artist Eduardo Kingman) // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 11. – P. 120 – 120.
108. Sukhostat A. A.
Guayasamin - man, artist, fighter // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 10. – P. 99 – 107.
109. Sheleshneva N. A.
A thousand drawings by an Ecuadorian artist: [O. Guasayamina] // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 3. – P. 109 – 119.
110. Petrova T. N.
Folk art of Ecuador // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 5. – P. 126 – 129.
111. Ecuadorian culture today // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 8. – P. 125 – 134.
112. Semenova I.K.
Labyrinths of color by the Ecuadorian artist [V. Bazante] // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 6. – P. 87 – 88.
113. Khait V.L.
Ten centuries of Colombian architecture // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 2. – P. 120 – 126.
114. Khait V.L.
How the originality of fine art and architecture is born // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 9. – P. 102 – 115.
115. Khait V.L.
How the originality of fine art and architecture is born in Latin America // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 4. – P. 100 – 115.
116. Stolbov V. S.
Latin American book in “ Fiction" // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 10. – P. 119 – 123.
117. Kofman A.F.
Tango – song: folklore or literature?: [History of Argentine tango] // Latin America. – 1986. - No. 3. – C 111.
118. Apostolli N.A.
Holidays and everyday life of the Colon Theater: [To the 80th anniversary of the Argentine Opera Theater Colon] // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 11. – P. 97 – 99.
119. Singer of Brazil: [To the 70th anniversary of the birth of J. Amado] // Latin America. – 1982. - No. 8. – P. 89 – 113.
120. Konstantinova N. S.
Brazilian theater in search // Latin America. – 1980. - No. 6. – P. 118 – 130.
121. Vasina E. N.
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122. Kage H.
Our view of the Latin American theater // Latin America. – 1993. - No. 1. – P. 78 – 83.
123. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Flight filled with soul...[Latin American Ballet] // Latin America. – 1985. - No. 10. – P. 126 – 132.
124. Vasina E. N.
Latest trends in Latin American theater // Latin America. – 1993. - No. 1. – P. 67 – 72.
125.Theatrical movement in Cuba today // Latin America. – 1981. - No. 8. – P. 115 – 126.
126. Grushko P.
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127.Razuvaev V.V.
Theater in Chile during the time of O’Higgins (XIX century) // Latin America. – 1990. - No. 7. – P. 91 – 100.1
128. Kosichev L. A.
Victor Jara – theater director: [Chile] // Latin America. – 1981. - No. 6. – P. 103 – 107.
129.Silyunas V. Yu.
Holidays and nightmares on the stage of the New Theater: // Latin America. – 1987. - No. 10. P. 76 – 89.
130. Zemskov V. B.
Latin American literature in the spiritual context of the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. // Latin America. – 1994. - No. 3. – p. 86 – 95.
131. Fedosov D. G.
Indians and ritual traditions of the Viceroyalty of Peru // Latin America. – 2001. - No. 3. – pp. 83 – 93.
132. Music of Latin America // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 1. S. 2 – 3..
133. Semenova I.K.
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134. Moura R. M.
Popular Brazilian music in faces and genres // Latin America. – 1998. - No. 2. – P. 120 – 124.
135. Gonzalez I., Enriquez A. M.
Ernesto Lecuono: Reflections on the 100th anniversary of the birth of the Cuban composer and performer // Latin America. – 1995. - No. 10. – P. 71 – 72.
136. Music of Silverste Revuelsa: (To the 80th anniversary of the birth of the Mexican musician // Latin America. –1979. - No. 5. – P. 137 – 154.
137. Kosichev V. A.
Violeta Parra and the new Chilean song // Latin America. – 1984. - No. 4. – P. 89 – 102.
138. Rock musicians in the fight against the dictatorship of Pinochet // Latin America. – 1989. - No. 2. – P. 121 – 124.
139. Shatunovskaya I.K.
Art that brings people together: [Musicians from Latin American countries at the 7th competition named after. P.I. Tchaikovsky] // Latin America. – 1983. - No. 1. – P. 110 – 114.
140. “...Music - alive soul people”: [On the music of Latin American countries] // Latin America. – 1985. – 3 2. – P. 77 – 89.
141. Cuban science today // Latin America. – 1987. – No. 2. – P. 76 – 78.
142. In the interests of the people: “National personnel - more and better”: [Development higher education in Cuba] // Latin America. – 1988. - No. 12. – P. 58 – 63.
143. Glinkin A. N.
Higher Central American University Council (HCUC) // Latin America. – 1990. - No. 8. – P. 130 – 131.
144. Kryazheva I. A.
What worries Latin American musicologists today // Latin America. – 1990. - No. 6. – P. 107 – 109.
145.Labarka G.
Latin America: how much to spend on education? // Latin America. – 1996. - No. 2. – P. 81 – 87.
RUSSIAN CULTURE
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§ 50. Development of Western European culture
A revolution in the minds.
Revolutions of the late XVIII-XIX centuries. prepared not only by changes in the life of society, but also by changes in the minds of people, in their worldview - the perception of the world around them. There was a growing belief that God does not directly influence the individual and his successes or failures in life. It all depends on effort, intelligence, work and perseverance. Moreover, it is unfair that a person’s position and the conditions of his life are predetermined by birth. All these ideas served as the moral basis for revolutions.
Literature.
At the end of the 18th century. and the beginning of the 19th century. In European art, the ideas of romanticism played a large role. The Romantics valued inspiration, spontaneity of feelings, and opposed the rules established by reason. Victor Hugo’s famous novel “Notre Dame de Paris” became a kind of manifesto of the French romantics.
In the 20s XIX century critical realism is born. Writers and artists of the realistic direction show interest in the multifaceted reproduction of reality, in broad generalizations.
The reflection of the economic, political, and moral contradictions of their time in artistic images is the merit of the writers of critical realism. The great realist writers, the Frenchman Honore de Balzac and the Englishman Charles Dickens, comprehensively revealed the life of society in their novels.
Balzac imagined society as a system of violence against the natural passions of man, that is, as a continuous drama. The writer studied in depth the causes and consequences, the laws of social existence, and his attention was focused not on the disasters themselves, but on the conditions that caused them. Dickens considered it his duty to “show the harsh truth” of life in order to eliminate the evil that exists in it. Exposing the vices in the life of England, he showed spiritual qualities ordinary people who have withstood difficult life trials.
The German poet Heinrich Heine, an “enthusiast of freedom,” began his creative career as a romantic. However, he addressed social issues and widely used folk motifs. The pinnacle of Heine's work is his political poem "Germany, a Winter's Tale." The poet laughed at those who tried to calm the people with tales about the afterlife. Heine wanted to “transform the earth into heaven and make the earth a paradise.”
An important phenomenon in literature and art of the 19th century. there was naturalism. Naturalists believed that facts are more valuable than the finest fiction and a writer should record events real life. The most prominent representative of naturalism was Emile Zola. In 1868, he began work on the 20-volume series of novels, Rougon-Macquart, which he completed a quarter of a century later.
Naturalism also influenced critical realism. The French writer Guy de Maupassant became famous thanks to his amazing skill as a short story writer, with his novels “Life”, “Dear Friend”, “Pierre and Jean” and others. Lnatole France is a master of philosophical and satirical stories (“The Judgments of Monsieur Jerome Coignard”, “Under the Wayside Elm” and etc.).
At the end of the 19th century. in literature, fine arts, architecture, theater, music, new styles and directions appear. There is a revaluation of values. Changes in the life of society, technological progress - all this required comprehension, a new look. The art of realism and those that appeared at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries approached this task differently. movements united under the name decadence (from the French decadence - decline).
Symbolism - one of the most significant phenomena in the literature of decadence - was formed in France. The Symbolists called themselves singers of “decline, decline, death,” hopelessness and disappointment. They abandoned the image of reality, preferring the “inner essence” to the external image, appearance. Symbolism is characterized by significant meaning, mystical allusions, images devoid of concreteness, and an orientation towards feelings. The most talented symbolist poets in France were Paul Verlaine and Arthur Rimbaud. In England, symbolists rallied around the Yellow Book magazine, with which Oscar Wilde, the most significant representative of English symbolism, was associated. He has written fairy tales, satirical plays, and the intellectual novel “The Picture of Dorian Gray.” The Belgian playwright Maurice Maeterlinck contributed to the development of the traditions of symbolism in the theater (the fairy tale “The Blue Bird”).
The English writer Herbert Wells, the creator of science fiction, wrote about the problems that technological progress can lead to, touched upon the topic of the responsibility of a scientist, and pointed out the need to correlate progress and moral standards.
Art.
In the first half of the 19th century. The art of Western Europe largely followed the path of imitation of the great masters of the past. In France, the main representative of painting of this time was Jacques Louis David. Among his students, Jacques Auguste Ingres stood out, who had to endure a stubborn struggle with the artists of the romantic movement. The first artist to embark on the path of romanticism was Eugene Delacroix.
Realistic traditions of the mid-19th century. associated with the name of Gustave Courbet, many of whose paintings are devoted to social themes. Political events were reflected in numerous etchings and lithographs by Honore Daumier, imbued with sympathy for the common people of Paris. Jean Millet depicted peasants in the lap of nature.
In England in the late 40s. XIX century Three young artists - Gian Everett Millais, Dante Gabriel Rosseti and William Holman Hunt - formed an alliance to jointly fight against convention and imitation in modern painting. They called themselves Pre-Raphaelites because they opposed the hobby of the 16th century masters. naive and deep realism of artists of pre-Raphaelian times.
A striking event in the fine arts of the late 19th century. was the emergence of impressionism. Its emergence is connected with the work of the Frenchman Edouard Manet, around whom a circle of young artists formed. Impressionists are characterized by the desire to reflect the fleeting, changeable, random; convey light and air through painting.
Music.
Romanticism of the early 19th century. showed himself widely in music. Romantic elements were closely intertwined with realistic ones. This interweaving is characteristic of the operatic work of Giuseppe Verdi. A romantic touch is also felt in an outstanding example of realistic opera - “Carmen” by Georges Bizet.
Franz Schubert sought to embody in music a unique moment, a deep intimate experience - everything that is connected with the range of human feelings. Robert Schumann created agitated, rebellious music, which reflected his sensitive reaction to life's impressions. The music of Fryderyk Chopin is permeated with folk rhythms and intonations, ancient legends, and poetry.
In the music of the 70s - 80s. XIX century Opera played an important role. The last works of Richard Wagner, who created the genre of musical drama, date back to this period. Wagner's influence extended even to composers who did not share his views on music.
Major scientific discoveries.
Scientific discoveries changed the understanding of the world around us and influenced people's lives.
In the 20s XIX century The largest discoveries in the field of electricity were made by Andre Ampère, thermoelectric phenomena were discovered in 1834 by Jean Peltier, and the electrical conductivity of substances was studied by Antoine César Becquerel.
Development chemical science was marked by a number of fundamental discoveries. In 1811 Bernard Courtou discovered iodine. In 1826, Antoine Jerome Balard discovered bromine. In 1802, independently of each other, the English physicist John Dalton and the French physicist and chemist Joseph Gay-Lussac established the laws of thermal expansion of gases.
James Joule's experiments provided an experimental substantiation of the law of conservation of energy. Joule and James Maxwell laid the foundations of the molecular kinetic theory of thermal phenomena. The work of Joule and Joseph John Thomson on cooling gases as they expanded laid the foundation for low-temperature physics. Thomas Young revived the wave theory of light. In 1800, William Herschel discovered infrared radiation.
Organic chemistry developed rapidly, in which Justus Liebig played a special role. He divided all organic compounds into proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and in 1831, simultaneously with the French chemist E. Soudeiran, he obtained chloroform. Liebig developed the theory of fermentation and putrefaction. In 1801, the German physicist Johann Ritter and his English colleague William Wolaston proved the existence of ultraviolet rays. The reformer of technical optics was Joseph Fraunhofer, who described the lines of the solar spectrum in 1814. In 1821, Thomas Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity. In 1826, the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm formulated the fundamental law of the electrical circuit, named after him. and Wilhelm Weber developed an absolute system of electromagnetic units. In 1 Franz Neumann created the theory of electromagnetic induction.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. A genuine revolution took place in physics, changing ideas about time, space, motion, and the structure of matter.
The English physicist J. Maxwell developed the general theory of electrodynamics. Subsequently, Maxwell's positions were confirmed by the works of physicists around the world (the discovery of electromagnetic waves by Heinrich Hertz, X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen, etc.).
The most important phenomenon in science was the discovery of the first elementary particle - the electron (Englishman George Paget Thomson). Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz completed the creation of his electronic theory of matter. Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity, which was actively studied by Marie Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie. The beginning of the creation of the physics of the atomic nucleus was laid. English physicist Ernest Rutherford discovered alpha, beta and gamma rays released during the decay of radioactive elements.
Important discoveries were made in the field of theoretical chemistry. In 1 Russian scientist developed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements based on their “atomic weight and chemical similarity.” Mendeleev predicted the properties of a number of still undiscovered elements.
In 1856, aniline dye was synthesized. A whole industry for the production of paints arose.
A revolution in natural science was caused by the book of the Englishman Charles Darwin “The Origin of Species”. In it, he argued that all living nature was formed gradually, through long evolution.
At the beginning of the 20th century. American biologist Thomas Morgan studied the patterns of inheritance of traits discovered in the 60s. XIX century Czech scientist Gregor Mendel, but did not gain fame at that time. At the very end of the 19th century. William Betson coined the term "genetics". In 1 Dutch scientist Hugo De Vries developed the theory of mutations (sudden changes in the characteristics of properties in animals and plants with the subsequent transmission of these changes by inheritance).
In the 80s XIX century French chemist Louis Pasteur developed vaccinations against chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies. At the same time, he studied the causative agents of tuberculosis and cholera. Diphtheria and plague bacteria were discovered.
Automobiles and aeronautics.
The first self-propelled machines were steam-powered machines. German engineer Karl Benz built and tested the first car with an internal combustion engine in 1885. Benz's compatriot Gottlieb Daimler developed his own gasoline engine.
At the end of the 19th century. humanity's long-standing dream of controlled aircraft has come true. The first thing to do was to construct controllable airships. In 1900, Ferdinand Zepellin's airship, which had a rigid frame structure, made its first flight in Germany.
However, the future lay in heavier-than-air vehicles - airplanes (airplanes). The first experiments in constructing aircraft with steam engines were carried out in Russia, by Clement Ader in France, and Hiram Maxim in the USA. The American brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright were the first to use a gasoline engine in aircraft construction in 1903.
QUESTIONS AND TASKS
1. What trends existed in Western European literature of the 19th century?
2. Describe the work of the largest painters and composers of the 19th century.
3. What major scientific discoveries were made in the 19th century?
4. Make a table of artistic styles and movements of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, indicating the names of cultural figures who worked within these styles. Why is it impossible for some cultural figures to find an unambiguous place in such a table?
Nature
