Introduction
Problems of religion have always worried humanity. Against the backdrop of profound changes in the economic, political and spiritual spheres of society taking place in our country, interest in religion has increased sharply. Satisfying this social need, the teaching of such disciplines as “Fundamentals of Religious Studies”, “History of World Religions”, “Religion in the System of World Culture”, etc. is being introduced in schools, lyceums, gymnasiums, colleges, and universities. The basis of these disciplines is integral part humanitarization of education. It helps students master one of the most important areas of world and domestic culture, realize free and conscious self-determination in ideological position, spiritual interests and values, learn to competently conduct ideological dialogue, and master the art of understanding other people whose way of thinking and acting is different. This will help him avoid, on the one hand, dogmatism and authoritarianism, and on the other, relativism and nihilism.
The emergence of Protestantism during the Reformation
The third major variety of Christianity is Protestantism. Protestantism arose as a result of the second largest schism in Christianity. In this case, a schism occurred in the Roman Catholic Church. The emergence of Protestantism is associated with the development of a broad religious, sociocultural and socio-political movement of the 16th - 17th centuries, which was called the Reformation (from the Latin reformatio - transformation, correction). The Reformation took place under the slogans of correcting Catholic doctrine, cult and organization in the spirit of the original evangelical ideals, eliminating in them everything that in medieval Catholicism seemed to the reformers to be a departure from these ideals Ugrinovich D.M. Introduction to Religious Studies. M., 1985. - 21 p..
The Reformation had deep historical roots. The immoral behavior and flagrant abuses of the Catholic clergy, church formalism and bigotry were denounced by pious believers, mystical theologians and public figures long before the Reformation. The forerunners of the Reformation are Oxford University professor John Wycliffe (1320 - 1384) and Prague University professor Jan Hus (1369 - 1415).
The Reformation itself took place in Germany and Switzerland. Its initiators and leaders were Martin Luther (1483 - 1546), Thomas Munzer (1430 - 1525), J. Calvin (1509 - 1564) and W. Zwingli (1484 - 1531) Ugrinovich D.M. Introduction to Religious Studies. M., 1985. - 23 p..
The most striking and concentrated expression of formalization religious life and the church’s orientation towards enrichment, from the point of view of pious believers, was the trade in indulgences. M. Luther’s speech against the theory and practice of selling indulgences was the starting point from which the Reformation began. On October 31, 1517, Luther published in Wittenberg (posted on the church door) 95 theses on the remission of sins, in which he denounced selfish trading in “heavenly treasures” as a violation of the gospel covenants. Accused by the leadership of the Catholic Church of heresy, Luther refused to stand trial, and in 1520 he publicly burned the papal bull excommunicating him from the church. Luther's ideas were supported by representatives of various classes in Germany. Encouraged by this support, he develops increasingly radical arguments against the official Catholic doctrine. The main argument of Luther's entire teaching is aimed at destroying the power of the church. He rejects the special grace of the priesthood and its mediation in the matter of soul salvation, does not recognize papal power. Together with the Catholic hierarchy, he rejected the authority of papal bulls (decrees) and encyclicals (messages), which was part of the content of Sacred Tradition. In contrast to the dominance of the church hierarchy and Holy Tradition, Luther put forward the slogan of restoring the traditions of the early Christian church and the authority of the Bible - the Holy Scriptures Garaj V.I. Protestantism. M., 1973. - 96 p..
In medieval Catholicism, only priests had the right to read the Bible and interpret its contents. The Bible was published in Latin and all services were conducted in this language. Luther translated the Bible into German and every believer was given the opportunity to become acquainted with its text and interpret it in accordance with his own understanding.
The Reformation had a number of trends. The second current was led by Thomas Münzer. Münzer began his reform activities as a supporter and follower of Luther. However, later, both in relation to religious doctrine and in socio-political issues, Münzer moves to more radical positions. Münzer’s religious teachings are dominated by mystical motives; he opposes the church hierarchy, orthodox theological teachings, “self-confident Pharisees, bishops and scribes” and contrasts them with the immediate “faith of the heart.” In his opinion, in order to find genuine truth, a person must break with his sinful nature, feel the spirit of Christ in himself and turn from godless wisdom to the highest divine wisdom. The source of truth for a person, according to Münzer, is the one acting in human soul Holy Spirit.
From Luther's postulate about equality between the laity and the clergy, Munzer draws the conclusion about the equality of all sons of God. And this meant the demand for civil equality and the elimination of at least the most significant differences in property. Thus, Münzer came up with the idea of social justice, for egalitarian or collective land use. Münzer’s ideal was the construction of the Kingdom of God on Earth. Under this slogan, an uprising broke out and the Peasants' War began in Germany (1524 - 1525). This war ended with the defeat of the rebels and the death of Munzer. Having been defeated, Munzer's supporters fled to Holland, England, the Czech Republic, and Moravia.
In the first half of the 16th century, the reform movement began to quickly spread beyond Germany. Separate Lutheran communities are appearing in the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic states, France and Poland Rozanov V.V. Religion. Philosophy. Culture. M., 1992. - 201 p..
The largest center of the Reformation during this period became Switzerland, in particular the cities of Geneva and Zurich, in which J. Calvin and W. Zwingli acted. J. Calvin's main ideas religious teaching laid down in two main works: “Instructions in the Christian Faith” and “Church Establishments.” On the basis of this teaching, a special type of Protestantism arises - Calvinism.
The Reformation also affected England. In England it began on the initiative of the ruling elite. In 1534, the English parliament declared the independence of the church from the pope and declared King Henry VIII the head of the church. All monasteries in England were closed, and their property was confiscated in favor of the royal power. But at the same time, it was announced that Catholic rituals and dogmas would be preserved. As a result of the struggle between the English authorities and the Pope, a compromise was found and on the basis of this compromise, in 1571, Parliament adopted a creed, on the basis of which the third major variety of Protestantism was formed - Anglicanism. Thus, from the very beginning of its existence, Protestantism was divided into a number of independent faiths - Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism. Later, many sects and denominations arose. This process continues to this day and sects arise, some of them move into the stage of denominations and acquire the character of a church. For example, Baptism, Methodism, Adventism.
The third major variety of Christianity is Protestantism. Protestantism arose as a result of the second largest schism in Christianity. In this case, a schism occurred in the Roman Catholic Church. The emergence of Protestantism is associated with the development of a broad religious, sociocultural and socio-political movement of the 16th - 17th centuries, which was called Reformation(from Latin reformatio - transformation, correction). The Reformation took place under the slogans of correcting Catholic doctrine, cult and organization in the spirit of the original evangelical ideals, eliminating in them everything that in medieval Catholicism seemed to the reformers to be a departure from these ideals.
The Reformation had deep historical roots. The immoral behavior and flagrant abuses of the Catholic clergy, church formalism and bigotry were denounced by pious believers, mystical theologians and public figures long before the Reformation. The forerunners of the Reformation are a professor at Oxford University
John Wyclif (1320-1384) and professor at the University of Prague Jan Hus (1369-1415).
John Wycliffe opposed the exactions of the popes from England, doubted the right of the church leadership to forgive sins and issue indulgences, insisted that the Holy Scripture (i.e. the Bible) has undoubted priority over the Holy Tradition, rejected the idea that in the process of the sacrament of communion Really, that is, materially, the transformation of bread into the body of the Lord takes place, and the wine into his blood. Jan Hus also came up with similar ideas, demanding that the church renounce wealth, buy and sell church positions, ban the trade in indulgences, transform the activities of the church in the image of early Christian communities, and deprive the clergy of all privileges, including the main ritual privilege - communion with wine. The fact is that in the Catholic Church, until the decision of the Second Vatican Council (1962 - 1965), there was a serious difference in the rite of communion between laity and priests. The laity had the right to receive communion only with bread, and the priests with bread and wine. Jan Hus was condemned by a church court for his heretical ideas and burned at the stake in 1415. But his followers (Hussites), as a result of a long struggle, in 1462 received the right to receive communion with wine.
The Reformation itself took place in Germany and Switzerland. Its initiators and leaders were Martin Luther (1483-1546), Thomas Münzer (1430-1525), J. Calvin (1509-1564) and W. Zwingli (1484-1531).
As can be seen from the above, it was painful for pious Catholic believers, focused on the deeply internal connection of man with God, to observe the luxury and debauchery that the high-ranking clergy indulged in. Preoccupied with the problem of saving their souls, they could not come to terms with the idea that the matter of their salvation was in the hands of such people. Not only luxury and immoral behavior aroused protest, but also the extreme formalism of religious life. As researchers of this period note, in medieval Catholicism all religious life was confined to the framework of church institutions. All forms of communication between believers and God are unified and codified, and the theological justification for this practice was the creation of the doctrine of ex opero operate (action through action). According to this doctrine, ritual liturgical actions have power in themselves, spreading divine grace regardless of the moral qualities of those who are the object of the sacred rite and those performing it. their priests seem to act automatically. The decisive condition for the effectiveness of the sacraments is the compliance of their procedure with the approved canonical norms. The authority of priests, their rights and opportunities, and place in the church hierarchy are also determined not by moral qualities, but by canon law and legal norms.
The most striking and concentrated expression of the formalization of religious life and the orientation of the church towards enrichment, from the point of view of pious believers, was trade in indulgences. M. Luther's speech against the theory and practice of selling indulgences was the starting point from which the Reformation began. On October 31, 1517, Luther published in Wittenberg (posted on the church door) 95 theses on the remission of sins, in which he denounced selfish trading in “heavenly treasures” as a violation of the gospel covenants. Accused by the leadership of the Catholic Church of heresy, Luther refused to stand trial, and in 1520 he publicly burned the papal bull excommunicating him from the church. Luther's ideas were supported by representatives of various classes in Germany. Encouraged by this support, he develops increasingly radical arguments against the official Catholic doctrine. The main argument of Luther's entire teaching is aimed at destroying the power of the church. He rejects the special grace of the priesthood and its mediation in the salvation of the soul, and does not recognize papal authority. Together with the Catholic hierarchy, he rejected the authority of papal bulls (decrees) and encyclicals (messages), which was part of the content of Sacred Tradition. In contrast to the dominance of the church hierarchy and Sacred Tradition, Luther put forward the slogan restoration of the traditions of the early Christian church and the authority of the Bible - the Holy Scriptures.
In medieval Catholicism, only priests had the right to read the Bible and interpret its contents. The Bible was published in Latin and all services were conducted in this language. Luther translated the Bible into German and every believer had the opportunity to become acquainted with its text and interpret it in accordance with his own understanding.
Luther rejected the dominance of the church hierarchy over secular power and put forward the idea of subordinating the church to the state. These ideas turned out to be especially close to some German sovereigns, dissatisfied with the concentration of land holdings and wealth in the church, the payment of large sums of money to the popes and the papal intervention in their politics. A group of German princes carried out reforms in their domains in the spirit of Luther's ideas. In 1526, the Speer Reichstag, at the request of the German Lutheran princes, adopted a resolution on the right of every German prince to choose a religion for himself and his subjects. However, the second Speer Reichstag in 1529 overturned this resolution. In response, 5 princes and 14 imperial cities formed the so-called Protestation - a protest against the majority of the Reichstag. The origin of the term “Protestantism” is connected with this event, which began to be used to designate a set of faiths of Christianity in origin associated with the Reformation.
The Reformation had a number of trends. We have already briefly become acquainted with the first of them, which was headed by M. Luther - Lutheranism. The second current was led by Thomas Münzer. Münzer began his reform activities as a supporter and follower of Luther. However, later, both in relation to religious doctrine and in socio-political issues, Münzer switched to more radical positions. Münzer’s religious teachings are dominated by mystical motives; he opposes the church hierarchy, orthodox theological teachings, “self-confident Pharisees, bishops and scribes” and contrasts them with the immediate “faith of the heart.” In his opinion, in order to find genuine truth, a person must break with his sinful nature, feel the spirit of Christ within himself and turn from godless wisdom to the highest divine wisdom. The source of truth for man, according to Münzer, is the Holy Spirit acting in the human soul.
From Luther's postulate about equality between the laity and the clergy, Munzer draws the conclusion about the equality of all sons of God. And this meant the demand for civil equality and the elimination of at least the most significant differences in property. Thus, Münzer came up with the idea of social justice, for egalitarian or collective land use. Münzer’s ideal was the construction of the Kingdom of God on Earth. Under this slogan, an uprising broke out and the Peasants' War began in Germany (1524-1525). This war ended with the defeat of the rebels and the death of Munzer. Having been defeated, Munzer's supporters fled to Holland, England, the Czech Republic, and Moravia.
In the first half of the 16th century, the reform movement began to quickly spread beyond Germany. Separate Lutheran communities appeared in the Scandinavian countries, the Baltic states, France and Poland.
The largest center of the Reformation during this period became Switzerland, in particular the cities of Geneva and Zurich, in which J. Calvin and W. Zwingli acted. J. Calvin laid down the main ideas of his religious teaching in two main works: "Instructions in the Christian Faith" and "Church Establishments." On the basis of this teaching, a special type of Protestantism arises
The phenomenon of the Reformation; Protestantism and Protestant denominations
The chronological period of the Renaissance is the era of the Reformation, which completed the greatest progressive revolution in the development of European culture. The humanistic ideas of the Renaissance touched upon the most important sphere of spiritual life medieval Europe- churches. The ideas of returning to the true meanings of religious relations, which, as seen by humanists, were lost due to the unrighteous way of activity of the existing church, served as the basis of the Reformation movement - a movement for the renewal of the church, for non-intermediary communication between man and God, for the abolition of complex church ceremonial, etc. d.
The Reformation is a broad religious and socio-political movement aimed at transforming the Christian religion, which developed in Europe in the form of the Catholic faith. Beginning in Germany in the 16th century, the Reformation swept a number of European countries and led to the fall from the Catholic Church in England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Finland, Switzerland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and partly Germany.
The Reformation took place under the slogans of correcting the church, which was mainly understood as getting rid of everything unnecessary and harmful that was introduced through the efforts of the Roman leadership and that not only corresponded to original Christianity, but also directly contradicted it. The undivided dominance of the Catholic Church in all spheres of life ultimately led to its internal degeneration and decay. Preaching humility and abstinence, the church became obscenely rich and profited from everything. The highest ranks of the Catholic Church lived in unheard of luxury, indulged in the revelry of a noisy social life, very far from the Christian ideal.
However, the real reasons for the Reformation were much more complex and diverse. It was not only the “damage” of Christianity by the papacy that forced participants in the movement to look for new forms of Christianity, but also a number of other circumstances.
The general trend towards the formation of nation states was strongly opposed by the supranational Catholic Church. The development of industry and trade, the formation of new social and economic relations also encountered obstacles generated by traditional ideology. It was also important that new trends themselves provoked a growth crisis. Many participants in the socio-economic processes of that time were not against resolving the problems that arose at the expense of the church.
But the Reformation was not just a religious renewal, it was a profound transformation of Christian culture. The result of this transformation was not only a new version of the Christian faith - Protestantism, but also a new type of person with a new attitude towards life and himself. It was this type of person that became the driving force behind the rapid development of Western European civilization. The Reformation changed the semantic world of Christianity and laid the foundations of a new type of Christian culture. In this renewed culture, Christian spirituality acted as the semantic basis of a new work ethic and became an inspiring force for the rational and practical transformation of the world. It was the countries that chose the path of the Reformation that achieved the greatest success in the development of civilization. The Reformation was a spiritual response to the challenge posed to the human spirit by the socio-economic and cultural situation of the 16th century. Therefore, let us first turn to the context in which the origins of the new culture matured.
The life of a layman was filled with everyday worldly concerns that had nothing to do with the salvation of the soul. However, it was believed that the church, due to the religious merits of its saints, accumulates more grace than is needed to save the recognized righteous. And the church gives this excess amount of grace to the laity, but not to everyone, but to those who adhere to religious rules and supports the church's efforts to save the entire world. True, in real life it turned out that supporting church efforts did not necessarily require high personal morality. Grace and salvation could be “earned” by pilgrimage, participation in a crusade, or simply by donating property or money to the needs of the church. In other words, there was a kind of exchange of earthly goods for heavenly goods. While feudal traditions dominated in Europe, this exchange was kept within certain limits and did not violate the stability of society, but the situation changed dramatically with the expansion of the sphere of commodity-money relations. The popes and the gigantic apparatus of the church sensed the possibility of unprecedented enrichment by selling absolution for money. These “releases,” set out in writing, were called indulgences, and special representatives of the church sold them in public places. It was possible to buy an indulgence that would forgive the most terrible crime. This, of course, could not save the caught criminal from worldly judgment, but it provided in advance the heavenly forgiveness of the corresponding sin (or many sins - everything depended on the amount paid). The sale of indulgences was one of the most profitable trades, but it undermined the authority of the church. Moreover, it actually deprived those who honestly worked in new areas of life from the perspective of meaning. From the point of view of traditional ethics, their activities were tinged with sinfulness, but honest business left no opportunity for “monetary redemption” of sins, while a rich robber or feudal lord, using the power he had, had and more money and more merit to the church, and therefore to God himself . The point, therefore, was not at all about the sale of indulgences - this sale only exposed the spiritual crisis of the papal church. Hence the prevalence of apocalyptic sentiments among the “third estate”. This crisis especially affected Germany, which, due to its fragmentation, was subjected to strong exactions from the united and powerful Catholic Church.
As mentioned above, the Reformation began in Germany, and this was not accidental. Germany was formally part of the Holy Roman Empire, but in fact political ties between Italy and Germany had weakened significantly by that time. The emperor, who personified the idea of the unity of the state, had long ago turned into a purely nominal ruler, elected by the most powerful princes. The empire itself was no longer a firmly organized whole and was a simple conglomerate of principalities and cities. These formations for the most part could not resist the claims of the church and their population, more than anywhere else, felt its oppression. The conflict between the growing cities and feudal structures has reached a stalemate. Dominating politically, the princes and knights were completely economically dependent on the burghers. The development of monetary circulation entailed not only the relative impoverishment of the old ruling strata of the population, but also forced them, in turn, to increase pressure on peasants and townspeople, many of whom, as a result, found themselves in a completely impossible position.
Naturally, general discontent should have turned to the Roman Church. The burghers saw in it a support for the feudal authorities and a generally conservative institution, preventing the free solution of economic problems, regulating not only everyday life, but also the methods of management themselves. The princes and nobility saw in her a powerful competitor, whose property and rights they were not averse to appropriating. The peasants and urban proletarians were dissatisfied with her, as with everyone in general.
German society became more and more imbued with the ideas of the Czech theologian, rector of the University of Prague Yana Hus (1371-1415). He advocated limiting and simplifying Catholic worship, translating it into a national language, and creating churches independent of Rome. Huss was convicted and burned. However, his teachings were also readily supported by German humanists, who tirelessly criticized the church. A whole series of ideas that anticipated the reform of the church were already contained in the speeches of Renaissance thinkers. Therefore, the Reformation and the Renaissance are inseparable from each other.
Under the circumstances, he delivered his sermon. Martin Luther(1483-1546) - came from a burgher family, who became a monk and learned theologian. The famous reformer was born in Thuringia into a family of modest means. However, he received a good education in Mansfeld, Magdeburg, Eisenach and the University of Erfurt. He was a sincere Catholic, a fan of St. Augustine. In 1505, he even entered an Augustinian monastery, although this caused a break with his parents. Subsequently, at the suggestion of the monastery leadership, he moved to Wittenberg to teach at the university and preach.
It all started with theses that Martin Luther October 31, 1517 posted for discussion on the gates of the Wittenberg Church. The theses proved that the purchase of an indulgence alone cannot reconcile a sinner with God; this requires internal repentance. The theses were not yet a break with the power of the pope, they still fit into tradition, but subsequent events showed that only a small fraction of what was expressed was expressed not only by Luther, but also by the broadest layers of society. “Luther’s act seemed more important and rich in consequences to his contemporaries than to himself. Until now, such issues were discussed only in the offices of scientists - now they were left to the judgment of the crowd. It was stunning, exciting; it seemed as if a fresh stream of air had penetrated the unbearably stuffy atmosphere in which the society of that time was suffocating. Everyone breathed more freely and started talking at once.”
The Reformation expressed not only spiritual interests - it was also beneficial to the princes, who were freed from the imperious and burdensome tutelage of the church. Therefore, Luther found allies among the powers that be. Without this coincidence of interests, the success of the Reformation would never have been so quick and obvious, but still its true meaning lies not in the utilitarian-pragmatic, but in the spiritual and moral sphere.
Luther categorically rejects the idea of salvation based on any merit. Luther demanded a return to the moral principles of primitive Christianity with its inherent simplicity, sincerity, and immersion in faith. A person should not look for an intermediate instance of salvation, trusting in them and giving them the right to punish and forgive, for by doing so he is betraying God. Luther proceeds from the fact that human nature is so fundamentally damaged by the Fall that no amount of religious merit can bring a person closer to salvation. According to Luther, salvation can only be achieved by faith in the atoning sacrifice of Christ. Moreover, this faith is not personal merit, but a manifestation of divine mercy - chosenness for salvation: only those whom God has chosen for salvation truly believe.
Since everyone is equally corrupt, Luther eliminates the dogmatic distinction between priests and laity: every believer has a “consecration” to communion with God, the right to preach and perform divine services (the principle of the universal priesthood). A priest in Protestantism is deprived of the right to confess and absolve sins; he is hired by the community of believers and is accountable to it.
Luther declared the Bible to be the final authority in matters of faith. Before the Reformation, the Holy Scriptures were published exclusively in Latin and were virtually inaccessible to the majority of believers. The mediator between people and the Revelation of God, set out in the Bible, was the church, which interpreted the Bible in accordance with Sacred Tradition. As a result, the decision of the pope became the final authority for the believer. Rejecting (unlike Catholicism and Orthodoxy) sacred tradition and the authority of the pope, Protestantism proclaimed the Bible as the only source of doctrine. And since everyone is equally affected by original sin, then there is not and cannot be a special group of people who have the exclusive right to speak on behalf of the Holy Scriptures.
Luther first translated the Bible into German and declared its study and interpretation to be the primary duty of every believer. Monasticism was eliminated, worship was simplified (it was reduced to preaching). And finally, Luther rejects most of the sacraments (only two remained - baptism and communion), saints and angels, the cult of the Mother of God, the worship of icons and holy relics, and purgatory.
So, a person is saved only by faith, and not by external fulfillment of religious commandments. The formulation of this principle itself is nothing new; it is already present in the New Testament, in the letters of the Apostle Paul. The fundamental difference from medieval Catholicism was the understanding of how genuine faith is manifested and realized. The true Protestant faith realizes itself not in specific religious efforts, but in earthly service to people through the conscientious fulfillment of one’s professional duties. And what is important here is not the result itself, but namely persistence in fulfilling one’s duty, inspired by the commandments of the Gospel. Rationally meaningful practical service to people here acquires the high significance that previously only religious and cult service to God had. Luther himself speaks about this unequivocally: “If you ask the last servant why she cleans the house, washes the closet, milks the cows, then she can answer: I know that my work pleases God, which I know from his words and orders.” .
Max Weber (1864-1920), who comprehensively studied the influence of Protestantism on the development of Western European civilization, points out that in fact, honest hard work in Protestantism takes on the character of a religious feat and becomes a kind of “secular asceticism.” At the same time, it is not the work itself that has religious (salvation) significance, but inner faith. But faith in itself is not a personal merit, but evidence of being chosen for salvation: only those whom God has chosen for salvation truly believe. This means that Protestantism from the very beginning rejected any kind of self-deception associated with the imitation of genuine faith and subsequent complacency. Through inner faith, good deeds and persistent honest work, a Protestant should not “deserve”, but continuously confirm his original salvation. But if he succeeds, then he gains confidence in salvation. Such confidence gives him inner strength, but it is initially devoid of complacency, which can be generated by merit: salvation cannot be earned, it is given only by the ineffable grace of God.
The new understanding of religion as a direct personal connection between a person and God was a strong blow to the Catholic Church, the spiritual and political stronghold of feudalism, the limitation of church authority in matters of faith and morals, upholding the moral significance of work and the sanctification of business entrepreneurship - this is the contribution made by Luther to the formation of early bourgeois ideology and culture.
French theologian became the successor of the Reformation John Calvin (1509-1564), who spent most of his life in Switzerland.
Calvin was born in France into a wealthy family with connections in church and aristocratic circles. He received his primary education at home. Then he studied philosophy in Paris and law in Orleans and Bourges. Like many in his time, Calvin was keen on humanistic ideals, but in 1532, having assimilated the ideas of Luther, he quickly became a very popular preacher among Parisian Protestants and became immersed in theological issues. Since the French government sought to prevent the spread of Protestantism in the country and persecuted dissenters, Calvin was forced to leave Paris and then France. He taught and preached for some time in Strasbourg and Basel. Finally, he settled in Geneva, where he stood not only at the head of the church, but also in fact at the head of the administration of the city, turning it into a center of Protestant education.
He managed to create the most consistent doctrine and, after the death of Luther, stood at the head of the entire Reformation, which at that time had already acquired the character of a wide international movement.
Calvin, under the influence of Luther's ideas, renounced the Catholic Church and joined the Protestant movement. In Switzerland, he wrote his main treatise, “Instructions in Christian faith“, whose dogmas expressed the interests of the most daring part of the then bourgeoisie. Calvin did not put forward fundamentally new ideas, but he systematized Luther's ideas. Calvinism further simplified Christian cult and worship, giving the church a democratic character (election of the leadership of the church by the laity), separated it from the state, although it left it as an independent political system.
Calvin takes the same positions as Luther, however, he emphasizes the greater possibility of the Christian’s active involvement in earthly affairs. Participation in secular goods is associated with the ownership of property and its increase; only moderate use of wealth is necessary in accordance with God's will.
The basis of Calvinism is the doctrine of divine predestination. Calvin brought this idea to absolute fatalism: some people, even before birth, are predestined by God to salvation and heavenly bliss, while others are predestined to death and eternal torment, and no human actions or faith can correct this. However, since the ways of the Lord are inscrutable and no one can know his own destiny, everyone should maintain readiness for high election. Divine predestination is hidden from people, and therefore every Christian must live his life as if he were predestined for salvation. The visible Church is a union for the mutual maintenance of such readiness. From this follows the right and duty of the church to achieve correct views and behavior from its members, using excommunication, repentance and other types of punishment.
Calvin sought to give Protestantism a harsh appearance as a kind of "monasticism in the world" and took charge of the practical implementation of the Protestant ethic in the daily life of the city of Geneva. Calvin preached the utmost limitation of one's life needs, renunciation of earthly pleasures, frugality, constant hard work and the improvement of professional skills. Success in professional activity is a sign of God’s chosenness, a profession acts as a calling, a place of serving God, therefore professional success is an intrinsic value, and not a means of achievement material goods. Criticism of luxury and idleness turned into a denial of artistic creativity, literature and art, into a ban on all amusements and entertainment.
Since 1536, Calvin settled in Geneva, where in 1541 he became the de facto dictator of the city, seeking the subordination of the secular power of the church. Calvin implemented the principle of independence of the church community from the state. (Luther, having freed the church from the power of the pope, did not avoid its dependence on the state). Moreover, the leaders of this community (and the first of them was Calvin himself) acquired significant power over their parishioners (although the preacher was elected by the community, it could not easily remove him unless there was an obvious crime). Calvin became the de facto ruler of Geneva, completely subjugating the consistory (elected church council of elders). Severe laws were introduced against the slightest violation of the norms of Protestant morality. True, the consistory could only impose church punishments, but it could also transfer the convicted person to civil authorities, who were no longer constrained in the choice of means.
Geneva has lost its former cheerful and free-thinking appearance. “Rich and poor, men and women, had to appear at the first request before a formidable tribunal and for the slightest inadvertent free speech, for smiling inappropriately during a sermon, for wearing too smart a suit, for having curled hair, they were given angry reprimands, put in the pillory, were subjected to excommunication, fines, and imprisonment. Any insult to the divine name was considered a crime punishable by the civil authorities. Anything could be subsumed under this category - some object of a former Catholic cult found during a search..., and disrespectful attitude towards the preacher...” .
In 1553, Calvin burned at the stake the freethinking doctor Servetus, who fled to Geneva, pursued by the Catholic Inquisition, but did not please the fanatics either new faith. Calvin's intolerance of dissenters earned him the nickname "Pope of Geneva."
Calvinism later gave rise to a number of movements and Protestant sects: Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Puritans, Baptists, Adventists, etc. Calvin’s influence spread to one degree or another to England, Scotland, Holland, Poland, Denmark, and France.
The Reformation in England acquired a peculiar character. The birth of Anglicanism can be called November 3, 1534, when the King of England Henry VIII signed an act in which he was proclaimed the sole head of the English Church.
The reason for this action on Henry's part was the Pope's refusal to grant him a divorce from Queen Catherine and allow his marriage to Anne Boleyn. The Pope hesitated for a long time, and eventually refused, fearing Catherine’s relative Charles V, King of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor. The Pope's refusal became a reason for open disobedience. This meant the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church, but not yet a rejection of Catholic dogma and ritual.
In 1535, the confiscation of monastic property began, which was completed by 1539. In 1536, theological work began, designed to substantiate a moderate option, preserving many features of Catholicism, but reducing the number of sacraments to three and reducing all church tradition only to the decisions of the first four Ecumenical Councils . In 1552 it was already recognized that the mere assimilation of Scripture was sufficient for salvation; that there are only two sacraments (baptism and communion); that the doctrine of supererogatory merit is false; that clergy of all ranks are not required to be celibate, etc. On the other hand, the episcopal system and church property (excluding monastic property) were preserved.
The formation of Anglicanism's own dogma and religious practice proceeded gradually and was largely completed in 1571, when Parliament revised the Creed and approved its new version, which consisted of 39 points. This Symbol denied the papacy, communion, monasticism, and the veneration of relics and icons. However, there is episcopal government, i.e. the existence of a church hierarchy similar to the Catholic one.
Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism do not exhaust the diversity of Protestantism. The principle of personal judgment in the interpretation of the Bible accepted by Protestants led to the fact that the varieties of Protestantism that arose during the Reformation began to fragment and “daughter” movements emerged from them, and new Protestant denominations appeared. In addition, there are denominations of so-called marginal Protestantism that are very distant not only from other Protestant movements, but also from Christianity in general (“The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints” or Mormons, “The Watchtower Society” or Jehovah’s Witnesses). In the XVII-XVIII centuries. Protestantism spread in Europe and especially America.
The Reformation contributed to the process of the emergence of a person in bourgeois society: a person freed himself from the authoritarian tutelage of the church, received the freedom to think independently, and be responsible in his judgments and actions. Faith ceased to be traditional and became a matter of personal choice. The bearers of Protestant ideas expressed a new, bourgeois, type of personality with a new attitude to the world, and through it influenced the development of modern Western civilization and culture: an effective market economy, civil society, a democratic legal state, spiritual culture and a civilized way of life.
Introduction
Protestantism religious Calvinism
Protestantism, a religious movement that includes all those Western faiths that do not go beyond Christian tradition, but differ from the Roman Catholic tradition. The word "Protestant" was first used at the Reichstag in Speyer (1529) to designate the signatories of the Protestatio, a document that openly expressed disagreement with the Reichstag's decision to prohibit a number of reforms within the church. Later, “Protestants” began to be called all those who disobeyed the pope during the coup of the 16th century, which went down in history under the name of the Reformation. Since then, Protestantism has fragmented into numerous families of churches and unrelated sects, and the word has become a collective concept, behind which there was no specific denomination.
The emergence of Protestantism. Reformation
Protestantism as a movement of Christianity belongs not only to the history of Christianity. He is still an influential spiritual and intellectual force today. The point is not only in the hundreds of millions of his followers, but also in the spiritual heritage of such masters of modern thought, Western philosophers as Karl Barth (1886-1968), Karl Jaspers (1883-1969), Martin Luther King (1929-1968) .), Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965), Billy Graham (b. 1926) and others.
The history of Protestantism is associated with names greatest representatives humanity, its culture. To understand this, let's look at the facts. The beginning of the 16th century in Europe is a great era of radical change in European culture, when the foundation for its development is laid for centuries to come. This is the time of noble impulses and the burning of “heretics”, hobbies ancient culture and witch hunts, pious disputes and sophisticated torture. All this flows into a single stream social development, forms a worldview that heralds the onset of the bourgeois era.
The Catholic Church is a fierce defender of medieval orders. She still enjoys enormous power. However, by this time the anti-church movements reached their highest point. In England, this trend was represented in the sermons of Oxford University professor John Wycliffe (1320-1384), who demanded the subordination of the English church in civil matters to the king. He also opposed the extortions of the popes from England, doubted the church's right to indulgences, and insisted on the priority of Holy Scripture over church tradition.
His ideas influenced the views of Prague University professor Jan Hus (1369-1415), who preached the church’s renunciation of wealth and the sale of indulgences. The burning of Huss at the stake on June 6, 1415, according to the verdict of the Council of Constance, caused outrage in the Czech Republic.
These ideas gave rise to a movement called the Reformation. His social base was extremely diverse. To unite these disparate forces, some kind of common program is needed. And it appeared: on October 31, 1517, in Wittenberg, local priest Martin Luther nailed theses to the gates of the cathedral. These theses, as F. Engels noted, “had a flammable effect, like a lightning strike on a keg of gunpowder.” Initially, Luther did not think about any radical reform of the church. Main idea his thesis was that salvation requires internal repentance of sinners, which cannot be replaced by external monetary sacrifice.
Rome responded to Luther with threats of excommunication and physical harm. But, as they say, the scythe hit the stone, and the Wittenberg priest Martin Luther refused to submit to the force. But dad could not give in - the conflict by this time had received wide publicity. Mutual attacks and accusations began to escalate, and on December 10, 1520, Luther publicly burned the papal Bull (decree) excommunicating him from the church.
The essence of the conflict was that the Catholic Church, as social institution feudalism could not be defeated without destroying the dogmatic foundation on which it based its dominance in society. In dogmatic terms, such a role was played by the theological teaching that the salvation of people is impossible without the help of the church, without the grace contained only in it.
In order to reject this theological construction within the framework of Christianity, it was necessary to contrast the earthly limitations of the church with the omnipotence of God himself. In other words, the freedom of people from the claims of Catholicism could be justified by emphasizing the complete, absolute dependence of man on the creator, the inability of a sinner to influence the highest divine will with his behavior (holy deeds and deeds of piety). Therefore, the reformers decisively rejected the Holy Tradition, which affirmed the church as a special divine social institution, and declared the Bible to be the only source of faith.
At the same time, the features religious consciousness, as well as real, increasingly complex social conditions led in practice, even at the beginning of the Reformation, to the emergence of different, often warring currents. The Reformation brought forward several outstanding figures: Martin Luther (1483-1546), Thomas Münzer (1490-1625), John Calvin (1509-1564), Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531). But the main thing, of course, is not the personality of the reformers themselves, although this is very important, but, first of all, the difference in the socio-political background of their views, the social practice that they are able to illuminate. Luther opposed Rome, motivated primarily by the experience of knowing God. He was paving the way for a new theology and could not see the whole path in advance. Calvin is younger than Luther, and he finds Protestant ideas already formed. At the age of 26, he published “Instructions in the Christian Faith” (1536), in which he set out Protestant doctrine in a systematic, ruthlessly consistent form, which soon became an encyclopedia of Protestant thought.
The emergence of Protestantism was a turning point in the entire European culture. The spiritual revolution was carried out by the titans in strength of thought, passion and character, in versatility and learning: Leonardo da Vinci, Machiavelli, Erasmus of Rotterdam. These undoubtedly include Luther and Calvin. They were people of faith and new spirituality for them ran through religious feeling, through the revival of the “apostolic faith.” For a medieval person, the idea of God is not an abstract, abstract dogma. For them, God is the highest truth around which all their ideas and ideas were grouped.
A group of German princes carried out evangelical reforms in their dominions. In 1529, they declared a “protest” against the abolition by the Speyer Reichstag of the right to decide the question of the religion of their subjects, which they achieved in 1526. The origin of the term “Protestantism” is connected with this event, which began to be used to designate a set of Christian denominations genetically related to the Reformation.
Protestantism
Reformation and the emergence of Protestantism
The Reformation has its own background. Revolutionary opposition to feudalism on the part of the popular masses and the emerging burghers passed through the entire Middle Ages, appearing either in the form of mysticism, or in the form of heresy, or in the form of an armed uprising. The dress rehearsal for the Reformation was the anti-Catholic Hussite teaching, as well as the national liberation, anti-Catholic and anti-feudal movement of the Taborites, led by the follower of Jan Hus (1369-1415) Jan Žižka. During the era of the Reformation itself, many of Hus’s provisions were openly accepted by Martin Luther, and the continuation of the popular Taborite movement was the Anabaptist movement.
In the Reformation, from the very beginning, there were two wings - the burghers and the peasant-plebeians, which is why they talk about the burghers and people's Reformations. During the Reformation, the struggle of revolutionary forces against feudalism and Catholicism was accompanied by a struggle within the opposition between the burgher and peasant-plebeian camps, deals between the burghers and feudalism at the expense of the people, and the use in a number of cases of the Reformation and its ideas by the feudal lords in their own interests.
Martin Luther was one of the inspirers of the bloody suppression of the great peasant uprising of 1524-1525. in Germany and the defeat of the popular Reformation represented by the Anabaptists. At the beginning of the peasant war, in the pamphlet “On the 12 Theses,” he declared the demands of the peasants to be the inspiration of the devil. In the pamphlet “Against the Bloodthirsty and Robust Bands of Peasants,” Luther called for the merciless defeat of the rebels. The first religious work of another founder of the Reformation, Calvin, was directed against the Anabaptists, and not against the Catholic Church. Calvin burned over a low fire the Spanish scientist Servetus, who belonged to the Anabaptists and to the rationalistic Protestant teaching known as Unitarianism or Socianism.
The Reformation did not act against the church and religion as such, but against the feudal, Catholic Church, opposing it new church adapted to the interests of the bourgeoisie. That the contending parties expressed their interests even at that time in the language of the Holy Scriptures is due to the immaturity of public consciousness, the dominance of religion, which in the 16th century. and partly in the 17th century. remained the predominant form of public consciousness. The influence of the secular culture of the Renaissance was shallow; the worldview of the majority remained religion. The revolutionary banner of the time became the “pure gospel,” a kind of “real word of God,” which had to be cleansed of the malicious distortions of Catholicism. It was the figures of the Reformation who translated scripture on vernacular languages, The Bible was made accessible to the masses for the first time (The extent to which the Bible was hidden from the people is shown by the fact that M. Luther first saw it only at the age of 20.), who were quick to see in some of its provisions a justification for their struggle for social equality.
When distinguishing between the popular and burgher Reformations, it should be borne in mind that the burgher Reformation made every effort to restore the influence of religion among the people, which had been shaken by the cynical practice of Catholicism, to elevate faith and degrade reason. “The virtue of faith,” Luther declared, “is that it wrings the neck of reason and strangles the beast, which might otherwise strangle the whole world with all its creatures.” “Reason,” Luther said, “is the devil’s first whore,” therefore, “by abandoning reason, we offer to God the most acceptable sacrifice that can be made.” Burger Protestantism emphasized man's powerlessness before the world, instilling in people a feeling of doom eternal torment. The popular Reformation saw its meaning in social progress, the masses understood the Reformation not so much as a religious one, but as a social reform, the implementation of a certain “divine right” read in the Bible, dating back to primitive Christianity; it was often religious only in form, behind which rationalistic and even atheistic ideas were hidden.
The main Protestant countries in Europe are Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland, England, Holland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. Since the 17th century The spread of Protestantism begins in the North American colonies of European countries, where representatives of a wide variety of Protestant movements fled to escape persecution. Protestantism spread over time to other colonies.
Scorpion
