Atomic Theory

Leucippus is considered the founder of atomism, but almost nothing is known about him. Therefore, by ancient Greek atomism we primarily mean the teachings of Democritus.

Democritus

Biographical information. Approximate life time – approx. 460–370 BC. Democritus was born in the city of Abdera (Hellas). He traveled a lot, was in Egypt, Babylon, possibly India and Ethiopia. He lived in Athens for a long time. Since Democritus constantly laughed at the imperfections of man, he bore the nickname Laughing.

Main works. It is known that Democritus wrote about 70 works on various fields of knowledge, but not one of them has reached us. The problems of atomism were presented in the works “Big Domostroy”, “Small Domostroy”, etc.

Philosophical views. The beginning. The principles of existence are atoms and the void in which atoms are located and move. Atoms (lit./ “indivisible”) are the smallest, indivisible particles of matter. Each atom is eternal and unchanging; atoms neither arise nor disappear. The number of atoms is infinite. They differ in size, shape (spherical, pyramidal, hook-shaped, etc.) and position in space. Atoms are mobile, floating and “dancing” in the void, like specks of dust visible in a sunbeam.

All things existing in the world consist of atoms and emptiness. The creation and destruction of things is the result of the cohesion and separation of atoms. All things die over time, but their constituent atoms continue to exist. Democritus considered the four traditional elements to be “middle steps” from which everything else is composed. Air, water and earth are made of atoms various forms, and fire - only from spherical ones.

The doctrine of primary and secondary qualities. Atoms themselves are devoid of such qualities as color, smell, heat, etc. All these qualities are the result of the perception of atoms by our senses. After all, says Democritus, what one person perceives as sweet, another may perceive as bitter. Hence it is necessary to distinguish between the primary ones, i.e. objectively existing properties of atoms (shape, size, position in space) and secondary – our subjective perception of these primary properties.

Cosmology and cosmogony. The world as a whole is an endless void, in which there is an infinite number of worlds consisting of atoms. Where there are many atoms in the void, they often collide with each other, which is why a cosmic vortex is formed. In its center, heavier atoms are concentrated, lighter atoms are forced out to the edges. This is how earth and sky come into being. The worlds are spherical, closed and surrounded by a shell (“skin”). The center of our world is the Earth; The sun, moon, stars belong to the sky. The number of worlds is infinite; some of them are just emerging, others have reached their peak, and others are dying; our world is in a state of blossoming. Some worlds are similar to each other, others are different.

Determinism. Democritus was the founder of mechanistic determinism. Nothing that happens in the world arises without a cause, everything appears due to necessity (after all, everything that happens in the world is the result of the movement, collision, cohesion, etc. of atoms). People invented coincidence to justify their own ignorance.

The origin of life and man. Living things arise from non-living things without the intervention of the gods and without any purpose. From the earth and moisture, first amphibians arose, and then land animals. Non-viable creatures (blind and deaf, legless and armless) died, only viable ones survived; they gave birth to offspring; Among these last creatures were people.

The source of movement for people and animals is the soul; it, like everything else, consists of atoms (spherical, as having the greatest mobility). With the death of the body, the soul disintegrates and dies.

Epistemology. There is a distinction between sensory (“dark”) and rational knowledge (through logical reasoning). When comprehending the world, our senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch) act first. Their images are constantly separated (flowing out) from things - these are, as it were, shells consisting of rarefied atoms. When these images enter a person’s senses, he perceives them. At the same time, like is perceived as like.

But sensory cognition is only suitable up to a certain limit, since the senses are not capable of comprehending very subtle and small entities (such as atoms). Then reason begins to act, giving us true knowledge.

The origin of religion and atheism. The source of faith in gods is fear of the forces of nature that man cannot explain. Everything that happens in the world is the result of the movement of atoms.

The fate of atomism. The teachings of Democritus had a significant influence on Epicurus (although Epicurus himself denied this), and through him, on the Roman philosopher Lucretius Cara. However, in general, atomism was not particularly popular in antiquity (for example, Stoicism took precedence over Epicureanism in the first centuries AD).

During the Middle Ages, he was practically unknown in the Christian world, but some of his ideas received a unique use in Muslim philosophy (kalam and Sufism).

In modern times, atomism turned out to be philosophical basis classical physics, deism and materialism of subsequent eras - until the beginning of the 20th century.

• Determinism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts the causality of any phenomena. The opposite doctrine, which allows for the existence of random, unconditional phenomena, is called indeterminism.

A summary of his works is no less interesting. If you have not yet met this thinker, we invite you to do so. Democritus is an ancient Greek philosopher whose life spans from approximately 460 to 360 BC. e. He is famous for being the founder atomistic doctrine. According to Democritus, only emptiness and atoms exist in the world.

Atomism of Democritus

Atoms are material indivisible elements ("figures", geometric bodies), impenetrable, indestructible, eternal. They differ in size, position in the void, and shape. Atoms move in different directions. Thanks to these movements, both countless worlds and individual bodies are formed. Atoms are invisible to humans, but they affect our senses, thereby causing sensations. But we will not dwell on this in detail, since the biography of Democritus is ahead. You can read it about physics separately; If you are interested in it, finding information today will not be difficult. We now invite you to get acquainted with the philosopher himself.

When was Democritus born?

We will assume that interesting biography Democritus begins in 460 BC. e. Although even in ancient times, the date of birth of this philosopher was a controversial issue. According to Apollodorus, he was born in 460 or 457 BC. e. However, Thrasyllus, who is the publisher of the works of this philosopher, expressed a different opinion. He believed that Democritus was born in 470 BC. e. This question still remains open.

Training and travel

The biography of Democritus leaves many dark spots, summary whose works are still of interest today (what a pity that the originals have not survived!) This philosopher came from a wealthy family. According to the legend conveyed by Diogenes Laertius, he studied with the Chaldeans and magicians, given to his father. Xerxes allegedly gave him such a gift because he treated the Persian army passing through Thrace to dinner. Democritus spent the rich inheritance left after the death of his father on travel. He visited Babylon and Persia, Egypt and India. For some time the philosopher also lived in Athens, where he listened incognito to Socrates. It is possible that Democritus also met with Anaxagoras. His biography is filled with many assumptions, but do not forget how long ago he lived Recreate life path Many of his contemporaries are very difficult.

Behavior of Democritus

The biography of Democritus is filled with many interesting details. The most interesting thing, perhaps, is related to his lifestyle. The behavior of this philosopher seemed incomprehensible to many of his contemporaries. Democritus often left the city. In order to hide from the bustle of the city, he came to the cemetery. Here the philosopher indulged in reflection. Democritus often burst into laughter for no apparent reason: all human affairs seemed funny to him against the backdrop of the world order. Because of this feature, this thinker even received the nickname “laughing philosopher.” Many fellow citizens considered him insane. They even invited Hippocrates, the famous physician, to examine him. He actually met with the philosopher, but decided that he was absolutely healthy both mentally and physically. Moreover, he claimed that one of the smartest people with whom he had ever communicated was Democritus.

His biography is interrupted presumably in 370 BC. e., when this thinker died. Thus, he lived for about a hundred years.

Synthesis of three schools

It is believed that the most big influence This philosopher was influenced by the atomist Leucippus. Nevertheless, the emergence of atomism as a universal teaching in philosophy, including ethics, psychology, epistemology, cosmology and physics, is associated precisely with Democritus. His teaching is a synthesis of the problems of three schools of Greece: Pythagorean, Eleatic and Milesian. The philosophy of other countries visited by Democritus also left its mark. His biography, as you remember, is connected with many travels.

Works of Democritus

It is believed that Democritus is the author of more than 70 different works. The titles of the works are given by The Thinker is credited with the authorship of works on physics, ethics, literature and language, mathematics, as well as applied sciences, including medicine. Moreover, Democritus was even considered the creator of the “Book of the Chaldeans” and “On the Sacred Inscriptions in Babylon” (within the framework of the “Chaldean” myth associated with the travels and education of this philosopher).

The beauty of the style of works

Democritus in ancient times gained fame not only due to the depth of his teaching, but also because of the beauty of the style of his works. Many thinkers have noted this, including Cicero, Timon of Phlius, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Signs of Democritus's style were: alliteration, rhythmic organization of phrases, brevity, neologisms, assonance, widespread use of rhetorical antitheses: “emptiness” and “atoms”, “microcosm-man” and “macrocosm-universe”, etc.

We already talked about atoms and emptiness at the beginning of the article. What else interesting can you learn about such a philosopher as Democritus? His biography is also marked by works on ethics, which is a continuation of the atomic physics of this thinker.

Ethics of Democritus

Just like the atom, man is a self-sufficient being. People are happier the more they are closed in on themselves. Democritus came up with several terms to express his own understanding of happiness: “well-being”, “complacency”, “equanimity”, “fearlessness”, and also used traditional terms - “dimension” and “harmony”. Euthymia is the central concept of the ethics of this thinker. Even a separate book by Democritus is dedicated to it. The doctrine of euthymia - complacency - is associated with this thinker’s criticism of beliefs in fate and traditional religion. The meaning of this term is associated primarily with the concept of measure. That is, a person must limit himself in bodily pleasures. Democritus believed that euthumia arises as a result of a measured life and moderation in pleasures. A sage rejoices in what he has, without envying the fame and wealth of other people. He strives for legal and just causes.

Let us note that the bulk of the fragments of Democritus that have survived to this day relate specifically to ethics. However, today it is difficult to judge the degree of accuracy with which the statements convey his words.

Cosmogonic ideas

Democritus based them on the concept of the existence of many worlds in the Universe. For him, time has no beginning, since it means a change in existence that occurs forever. Democritus likened the human body to the cosmos and called it a microcosm. It is known that this thinker recognized the existence of gods, but in a very unusual form. For him they are compounds of fiery atoms. Democritus denied the immortality of the gods.

What is the soul according to Democritus?

The philosopher imagined the soul in the form of an atom. It was this atom, he believed, that explained various features of mental life. The main one is movement. The soul that produces movement must itself be mobile. Therefore, it must be represented in the form of fiery round atoms. Thinking is also movement. And when we breathe, along with the air we receive new fiery atoms, replacing the spent atoms of our soul. That is why the cessation of this process leads to death. The soul, Democritus believed, is the most essential thing in a person. He advised taking care of her first of all, and not of the body. The philosopher believed that all objects are animate. The soul that fills the whole world is a deity. However, it obeys mechanical laws and does not differ qualitatively from material existence.

Aesthetics of Democritus

In it, the ancient Greek thinker, apparently, was the first to outline the line between applied arts, which require only skills, and artistic creativity, which is impossible without inspiration. In addition, in ethics, Democritus developed the doctrine of immunity to affects (ataraxia).

Now you can talk about short biography and his discoveries can interest almost any person, so we recommend doing so. Surely many of your friends, relatives and acquaintances do not know what you know. The biography of Democritus, facts from and interesting information about him - all this can be discussed for a very long time.

Democritus (he was also called Democritus of Abdera after his place of birth) is an ancient Greek philosopher, the first consistent materialist, one of the first representatives of atomism. His achievements in this area are so great that over the entire modern era, any fundamentally new conclusions have been added to them in very small quantities.

We know only fragmentary information from his biography. Even ancient researchers could not come to a consensus on when exactly Democritus was born. It is believed that this happened around 470 BC. e. His homeland was Thrace, a region of Eastern Greece, the seaside city of Abdera.

Legend has it that the father of Democritus received as a gift from the Persian king Xerxes for his hospitality and cordiality (his army passed through Thrace, and the father of the future philosopher allegedly fed the soldiers dinner) certain Chaldeans and magicians. Democritus, according to legend, was their student.

It is not known whether his education was exhausted by this, but his knowledge and experience increased significantly during numerous trips and travels, which, in turn, became possible thanks to receiving a rich inheritance after the death of his father. It is known that he visited countries such as Persia, Egypt, Iran, India, Babylonia, Ethiopia, and became acquainted with the culture and philosophical views of the peoples living there. For some time he lived in Athens, listened to the lectures of Socrates, and quite possibly met Anaxagoras.

In the hometown of Democritus, embezzlement of parental inheritance was considered a crime and was punishable by the court. The philosopher’s case was also considered at the court hearing. Legend has it that, as a defense speech, Democritus read several passages from “The Great World-Building,” his work, after which his fellow citizens returned a verdict of not guilty, thereby recognizing that he had found a worthy use for his father’s money.

Indeed, Democritus possessed such encyclopedic, extensive and versatile knowledge that he deserves the title of predecessor of the famous Aristotle. In his contemporary era, there were no sciences that he did not study: astronomy, ethics, mathematics, physics, medicine, technology, music theory, philology. As for philosophy, his mentor in this area was the atomist Leucippus, information about whom is practically absent in our time. However, the emergence of such a universal philosophical teaching, like atomism, is usually associated precisely with the theories of Democritus. It represented a synthesis of cosmology, physics, epistemology, ethics and psychology - areas of knowledge that were studied by the most ancient philosophical Greek schools.

Democritus led a rather strange lifestyle from the point of view of ordinary people; for example, he liked to think, moving away from the bustle in the cemetery. He was given the nickname “The Laughing Philosopher,” in particular, for his manner of laughing publicly for no apparent reason (the philosopher could not look without laughing at how petty and absurd human concerns were sometimes compared to the greatness of the world order). According to legend, the townspeople turned to Hippocrates to examine Democritus, who had gone crazy, but the famous doctor recognized the philosopher as completely healthy and called him one of the smartest people with whom he had to deal. He died around 380 BC. e.

Diogenes Laertius claimed that Democritus wrote about 70 works devoted not only to philosophy, but also to other sciences and arts. The most common references are to the “Great World-Building” and the “Small World-Building”. His legacy has survived to this day in the form of 300 fragments. In the era of antiquity, Democritus gained fame not only for his philosophical views, but also for his ability to express thoughts in his writings beautifully, but at the same time briefly, simply and clearly.

Democritus of Abdera, the famous ancient Greek philosopher, who is considered the founder of the theory of atomism, possessed encyclopedic knowledge. The learned man studied exact and natural sciences and participated in the compilation of the first calendar.

Democritus was born in the city of Abderach, located in Thrace. The date of birth is considered to be 460-370 BC. The boy's family was famous for its wealth and righteous life. In addition to Democritus, the parents gave birth to two more sons - Herodotus and Damasus. In Greece, the young man’s hometown was considered a city of simpletons and ignoramuses, and the inhabitants were called outright fools. The smart boy refutes the opinion of his compatriots about Abderakh.

Damasippus, the head of the family, left acres of land, three hundred head of cattle, slaves and money as an inheritance to his children. The man hoped that the offspring would increase his fortune. Democritus renounced his property, taking 100 talents. Relatives believed that he would buy goods or use the funds for trading operations. But the young man set off to wander, since childhood he dreamed of comprehending the truth.

During 8 years of travel he visited Persia, India, Egypt and Babylon. He lived in Athens for a year and a half, where he listened to lectures and communicated with Anaxagoras. Gained knowledge from the Persian Chaldeans and magicians. The man was forced to return to his hometown by necessity. Having squandered his father's inheritance on travel, he is forced to live off sibling Damas.

In Abderakh he was placed under arrest for embezzlement of property. At the trial, the young philosopher defended his rights independently and reported to his fellow citizens for his actions. He explained to those gathered that he had spent the money not on empty wanderings, but on learning the wisdom of other peoples, on studying foreign morals, customs, and science.

At the end of his acquittal speech, Democritus read excerpts from his own work “The Great World Building,” which explained the origin of the Universe and the structure of things. The townspeople acquitted the sage and rewarded him with money. This point in the philosopher’s biography is confirmed by studies of the works of Diogenes Laertius and Athenagoras.

The science

The life and scientific experiments of the famous Abderite did not leave his fellow citizens indifferent, who considered him crazy. Democritus loved to walk for hours in the cemetery, where he pondered the ideas of the creation of the world in peace and quiet. In a conversation he could easily burst out laughing for no reason. The man explained this by saying that everyday difficulties and nuances are nothing in comparison with the globality of the universe.

“These two enforcers of the law represent complete polarity to each other, both in appearance and in techniques.”

Personal life

The ancient Greek scientist had no personal life. He did not approve of sex life, considering it the predominance of pleasure over consciousness. At the moment of intercourse, a man is guided by animal instincts, which is not appropriate for a scientist. He considered women to be stupid and worthless creatures, suitable only for procreation.

The role of the father did not inspire the philosopher. He believed that small children would interfere with mental and contemplative work. Democritus left no offspring. According to Tertullian, at the age of 90 he blinded himself so as not to desire a woman. This hypothesis was recognized as erroneous and it was proven that by these years the learned man had simply gone blind.

Death

Hipparchus reports that great philosopher died painlessly, without suffering from illness, having lived to be 109 years old. Three days before his death, he asked for hot bread and rolls to be brought into the room every day to enjoy the aroma. The burial took place at state expense, and at farewell the townspeople paid tribute to their great compatriot.

• He was an atheist. Gods were created by people to explain the world order.
• He strived for self-improvement and spiritual growth.
• Wrote 70 works.
• He believed that the soul consists of “vital atoms” of fiery color.
• The human mind is located in the chest, not in the head.
• He explained the emergence of crafts by the fact that man “spotted” this in the animal world.
• In the 20th century, a lunar crater was named after the scientist.

DEMOCRITES from Abdera in Thrace (c. 470/60 - 360 BC) - Greek philosopher, founder of atomistic teaching. He came from a wealthy family and in his youth studied with “some magicians and Chaldeans”, given by the Persian king Xerxes to the father of Democritus for feeding the Persian army passing through Thrace dinner. After the death of his father, he spent his part of the rich inheritance on travel, visiting Persia and Babylon, India and Egypt. He lived for some time in Athens, where at that time he could listen to Socrates and Anaxagoras. After returning to his homeland, his fellow citizens sued the philosopher for wasting his father’s inheritance, but Democritus read them his two main books: Big Mirostroy And Small Mirostroy, and was completely acquitted. In total, Democritus was credited with the authorship of more than 70 works, today known from fragments.

Atomism of Democritus became a summative doctrine pre-Socratic philosophy, which reflected the problems posed in Ionian natural philosophy, Eleatic ontology and Pythagorean numerical metaphysics.

The philosophy of Democritus is based on the doctrine of atoms and emptiness as two principles that give rise to the diversity of the cosmos. An atom is the smallest “indivisible” body, not subject to any changes. The indivisibility of the atom is similar to the indivisibility of Parmenides’ “being”: division presupposes the presence of emptiness, but by definition there is no emptiness inside the atom. Emptiness in the Democritus system acts as the principle of discreteness, multitude and movement of atoms, as well as their infinite “container”. Calling emptiness “non-existence”, Democritus clearly abandoned the Eleatic postulate about the non-existence of non-existence, however, the concepts of being and non-being are included in his more general concept“what really is”, thanks to which reality was also recognized behind emptiness (equal to non-existence).

All atoms have the property of continuous movement, and even inside macrobodies, which are formed due to the adhesion of atoms to each other, they perform oscillatory movements. The root cause of this movement is the collisions of atoms that began during the spontaneous “Vortex”, thanks to which our cosmos arose: in the cosmogonic Vortex, the primary sorting of atoms took place (like to like), larger atoms found themselves in the center, and from them the Earth arose. A “wet and mud-like” shell initially rotated around it, which gradually dried out and the wet matter went down, and the dry matter ignited from friction and stars formed from it.

Atoms, the number of which is infinite, differ from each other in three properties: “shape”, “size” and “rotation” (position in space). For example, “B” differs from “c” in size, “B” from “P” – in shape, and “P” from “b” – in rotation; the fourth distinctive characteristic - “order” - refers to the way atoms are connected to each other (BRR as opposed to RVR, etc.), as a result of which macrobodies composed of atoms have various qualities.

Democritus was one of the first to point out the dependence of the qualities of things on the way of knowing them. All the concepts that make up the language of our description of the external world do not correspond to anything “truly”, which is why all our knowledge, in essence, has the character of an agreement: “according to custom, sweetness, according to custom, bitterness, according to custom, cold, color, warmth, but in reality - atoms and emptiness." According to Democritus, since atoms do not have qualities (color, smell, taste, etc.), then things do not have these qualities, for “out of nothing nothing comes.” All qualities are reducible to formal quantitative differences between atoms: a body consisting of “round and moderately large” atoms seems sweet, and one consisting of “rounded, smooth, oblique and small in size” seems bitter, etc. Qualities are formed during the act of perception, the reason for their occurrence is the interaction of the atoms of the soul and one way or another unfolded atoms of the object.

The soul, like fire, consists of the smallest spherical atoms, so it gives the body warmth and movement (the ball is the most mobile of all figures). Democritus did not introduce special distinctions between soul and mind, and explained the thinking process also through “imprinting of images.” Sensory perception Democritus explained with the help of “outflows” from bodies: a certain thin material film flies off from the surface of bodies, having the shape of a perceived body, it penetrates through the eye into the soul, in which it is imprinted - this is how our ideas arise.

The ethics of Democritus is a kind of continuation of his atomistic physics: just as an atom is a complete and self-sufficient being, so a person is a self-sufficient being, the happier he is, the more closed on himself. To express his understanding of happiness, Democritus came up with several terms: “complacency”, “well-being”, “fearlessness”, “ataraxia” (equanimity). The central concept of his ethics is complacency (euthymia), which “arises through moderation in pleasures and a measured life.” A sage who has complacency knows how to rejoice in what he has; not envying other people's wealth and glory, he strives for fair and lawful deeds; he works to the best of his ability, but is careful not to be “too active in private and public affairs.”

It is traditionally believed that Democritus was the teacher of Protagoras and, accordingly, influenced the formation of the relativistic teachings of the Sophists. He is also considered one of the sources of the formation of the skeptical tradition. But most significant is the comparison of the atomism of Democritus with the teachings of Epicurus.

Maria Solopova

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