Epicureanism, Cynicism, Stoicism The most important philosophical movements Hellenistic era - Epicureanism, Cynicism, Stoicism. Epicureanism. Epicurus (341–270 BC) divided his teaching into three parts: the theory of knowledge (canon), the doctrine of nature (physics) and ethics. Epicurus did not recognize

37. Stoicism of Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius (121–180) is a Roman emperor, one of the most significant representatives of Roman Stoicism. Marcus Aurelius primarily reflects on the frailty of life. He derives his assessment from the understanding of time: time is a river, a rapid stream.

Stoicism (Stoicisme) An ancient philosophical school founded by Zeno of Kition. It was rethought and updated by Chrysippus, and further developed thanks to Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. The school owes its name not to the founder, but to the place where Zeno met with

Founder of Stoicism philosophy - Zeno from Kitia in Cyprus(c. 333 - 262 BC). A circle of admirers of his philosophy gathered near the portico, stoa, painted by Polygnotus, hence the name of the school - Stoicism. Zeno's successor was Cleanthes (c. 330 - 232 BC) - a former fist fighter. His successor - Chrysippus (c. 281/277 - 208/205 BC) - a former athlete and runner. The works of the early Stoics have reached us in fragments.

Zeno and Chrysippus divided philosophy into physics, ethics and logic. Cleanthes distinguished dialectics, rhetoric, ethics, politics, physics, and theology in philosophy. Zeno and Chrysippus placed logic at the forefront of philosophy.

The Stoics understood logic as the study of internal and external speech. At the same time, it was divided into two parts: the doctrine of reasoning in the form of continuous speech and the doctrine of the movement of speech in the form of questions and answers. The first teaching of the Stoics is rhetoric, and the second is dialectics. In addition, logic considered the doctrine of the signified, i.e., concepts, judgments and inferences, and the doctrine of the signifier, i.e., words and signs. The first makes up the logic in it modern understanding, and the second was designated by the Stoics as grammar.

The Stoics accepted the laws of consistency, identity, sufficient reason and excluded middle as principles of correct thinking.

The Stoics developed Aristotelian doctrine about syllogistics and judgment.

In the theory of knowledge, representatives of early Stoicism proceeded from the recognition of the knowability of the world. They saw the source of knowledge in sensations and perceptions. On this basis, in their opinion, ideas are formed. The Stoics believed that there are no innate ideas. In solving the problem of general and individual knowledge, they were of the opinion that only individual things really exist; they considered general things to be a subjective concept. The Stoics distinguished between natural and artificial concepts. The former, according to their ideas, are formed spontaneously, while the latter are formed on the basis of dialectics.

The Stoics paid attention to the doctrine of categories, which they considered subjective. They identified only four categories: substance, quality, state and attitude. Substance or essence for the Stoics is primordial matter, that is, from which everything arises. From primordial matter things are formed that have qualities. Quality, according to the Stoics, denotes permanent properties. Transitional properties are designated by the category “state”. Things are in relation to each other, hence the category “relationship”.

In physics, the Stoics accepted the basis as the basis of all existence, which has four principles: fire, air, water and earth. They attached particular importance to pneuma, that is, a mixture of fire and air. Following Heraclitus, they considered fire as the origin of everything that exists in the world.

According to the Stoics, the world is one whole. This integrity is based on universal consistency and necessarily conditioned interconnection. The world, according to Chrysippus, is spherical and located in an endless void, which is incorporeal.

The Stoics believed that everything in nature is in motion. Moreover, in their opinion, there are 3 types of movement: change, spatial movement and tension. Tension is considered as a state of pneuma. Depending on the state of pneuma in bodies, four kingdoms of nature are distinguished: inorganic, flora, fauna and the human world. Pneuma is understood not only as a physical, but also as a spiritual principle. The highest tension of pneuma as a spiritual principle is characteristic of sages. But pneuma is something divine among the Stoics; for them it acts as reason, the logos of the cosmos. The mind of God, in their opinion, is pure fire. For the Stoics, God is the highest rational power that controls everything and gives expediency to everything. The world, according to the Stoics, is dominated by strict necessity. Its manifestation is subject to the will of God.

At the center of the ethical reasoning of the Stoics is not the concept of happiness, but the concept of duty. The Stoics, developing their original ethics, saw duty in the pursuit of moral perfection, which is achieved when a person lives in accordance with nature and submits to fate. Man, the Stoics believed, cannot make this world perfect, but he can create a perfect world within himself, acquire proud dignity, and follow the high demands of morality. The pursuit of perfection lies in the ways of understanding the world and practicing virtuous behavior. Inner freedom is achieved by recognizing the need to follow the demands of indisputable duty.

The Stoics believed that the path to bliss was equanimity. They paid close attention to the analysis of passions, demanding their subordination to reason. Passions were divided into four types: sadness, fear, lust and pleasure.

Sadness, according to the Stoics, comes in many forms. It can be caused by compassion, envy, jealousy, ill will, anxiety, grief, etc. The Stoics considered fear as a premonition of evil. They understood lust as an unreasonable desire of the soul. Pleasure was perceived by the Stoics as the unreasonable use of desires. The Stoics eschewed pleasure. For them, the ideal was a dispassionate person, an ascetic.

Passions, according to the Stoics, are the source of evil, which can appear in the form of unreason, cowardice, immoderation and injustice.

The Stoic strives to rise above passions. This is achieved by understanding the essence of good and evil, between which, as they believed, lies a vast field of moral indifference.

The Stoics taught moderation, patience, and courageous enduring of the blows of fate.. They proclaimed: be a man in both poverty and wealth, maintain your dignity and honor, no matter what it costs you, if fate has destined you for poverty, ill health, homelessness, endure them without groaning, if you are rich, handsome, smart, be moderate in the use of these benefits, remember that tomorrow you may find yourself poor, sick, persecuted.

The largest representatives of middle Stoicism are Panetius (about 185 - 110/109 BC) and Posidonius (135 - 51 BC). They softened the rigorism of the original Stoicism.

It is known that Panaetius rejected the idea of ​​​​the rigid certainty of events and phenomena in the world, which was adhered to by the early Stoics. He insisted on the separation of human body and soul, while his philosophical predecessors considered them quite united.

In the field of ethics, Panaetius lowered the ideal of self-sufficiency of virtue and included good health and material well-being among the preferred ones.

Panaetius and Posidonius sought to adapt the ideas of Stoicism to the needs of active and militant Romans. In the works of these thinkers, which have reached our time only in the form of fragments included in the works of authors of later times, there was a place for the promotion of philosophical ideas not only of their predecessors of the early Stoics, but also of ideas characteristic of other directions of philosophical thought.

Representatives of Stoicism

Representatives of late Stoicism are Seneca (3/4 BC - 64 AD), Epictetus (about 50 - 138 AD) and Marcus Aurelius (121 - 180 AD .).

Seneca

Lucius Anyas Seneca is considered the founder of the “new Stoa” or late Stoicism. He was Nero's tutor, and after his accession one of the richest Roman dignitaries. However, he became a victim of intrigue and was killed by order of Emperor Nero.

Seneca saw philosophy as a means of tripling man in the world. Seneca was of the opinion that philosophy is divided into ethics, logic and physics. His philosophy is dominated by an interest in ethics.

Seneca's philosophy is not so much theoretical as applied. He did not equate knowledge and wisdom, but considered it necessary to possess knowledge to achieve wisdom.

Seneca considered matter to be inert. It, in his opinion, is set in motion by reason, which he identified with the cause. He believed that the soul was bodily, but this did not stop him from contrasting the soul and body and believing that the soul was immortal.

Seneca argued in his “Moral Letters to Lucilius” and in the treatise “On Beneficence,” by which his views are mainly judged, that the world is ruled by an inexorable necessity, before which all people - both free and slaves - are equal. A true sage must submit to this necessity, that is, fate, humbly endure all adversities, and treat mortal human existence with contempt. The condition for submission to fate, according to Seneca, is the knowledge of God. The gods, according to Seneca, are good. They differ from people in the measure of good that they are able to do. Divinity manifests itself in the harmony of the world. The philosopher believes that nature is impossible without God. God is seen by Seneca as the force that gives purpose to everything. However, as he believed, recognition of the dominance of necessity and expediency in the world does not provide a reason for inaction. Taking this into account is only a reason not to despair of acting again and again in the hope that someday the efforts will ultimately end in achieving the goal.

Seneca praised victory over sensual passions and the desire for moral improvement. He called not for a change in the living conditions that shape man, but for the correction of his spirit. The philosopher believed that “the root of evil is not in things, but in the soul.” Seneca argued that one must live, striving to benefit one’s neighbor, and preached non-resistance to evil and forgiveness.

For the Stoic Seneca, despite his criticism of the property relations of his time, wealth is still preferable to poverty, since it provides the opportunity to serve people. According to Seneca, a wise man should not be afraid of wealth, because he will not allow himself to be subjugated by it. Endowing people with wealth, in his opinion, should be considered as a test. If a person is virtuous, then wealth gives him the opportunity to test himself in the field of good deeds. Seneca believed that wealth is desirable, but it should not be stained with blood, acquired through dirty money. Unlike the Cynics, who viewed wealth as the result of a deal with conscience, Seneca argued that the possession of wealth is justified if it is wisely spent on things useful to people.

Seneca’s means of ordering life is his proposed transformation of it into a field for good deeds, which should be done without any hesitation, but selectively. Everyone who accepts a benefit must benefit the benefactor. At the same time, property is considered as a means for creating good deeds. Seneca opposed the idea that funds for good deeds should be collected through immoral means.

The ancient philosophical movement of Stoicism is a kind of tribute to virtue, which teaches everyone morality, order and responsibility. These dogmas appeared during late Hellenism and existed for several centuries. This movement received its name, foundations and essence in Greece, but very soon became popular in the Roman Empire. It is impossible to talk about what Stoicism is in a nutshell. Therefore, based on the works of ancient sages, we will take a broader look at this concept.

Origin and description

The approximate date for the founding of the school of Stoicism is considered to be the 4th century. It was then that the first public speech of Zeno of Citium took place in the Portico of the Stoa Poicile. He played the role of a teacher and told everyone about his discoveries and thoughts in the field of philosophy. So he became the founder of a new school, which later literally acquired other dogmas and stereotypes. Generally speaking, stoicism in philosophy is masculinity, steadfastness, firmness and resistance to all life's trials. We can say with complete confidence that the image of a typical Stoic, as he was depicted in the imagination of the ancient sages, is firmly entrenched in the consciousness of European society. This term always characterizes a hardy, unsentimental person, one who feels a sense of duty to himself and others. It is also worth noting that stoicism is the rejection of any emotions, since they are what prevent a person from thinking sensibly and making rational decisions.

Periodization

Scientists have differing opinions on this issue. Some researchers identify in the history of the development of this school the so-called zero period. It is believed that in Stoa Poikil, sages who had precisely stoic views on life gathered 300 years before the birth of the founder of this movement. Unfortunately, all their names have been lost.

First period - Ancient Stoa. Lasted from the 4th to the 2nd centuries BC. Its main character was, of course, the founder - Zeno of Citium. Along with him were Cleanthes and Chrysippus from Sol. The first stage of Stoicism is considered to be exclusively Greek, since the teachings have not yet gone beyond the borders of this country. After the death of their mentors, their students took over their business. Among them we can distinguish Diogenes of Babylon, Crates of Mallus, Antipater and others.

The Middle Stoa, or Stoic Platonism. Existed from the 2nd to 1st centuries BC. Main characters era - Posidonius and Panetius of Rhodes. It was these representatives of Stoicism who began to transport their knowledge to Rome, where it later also became popular. Their students continued to develop the school - Dardanus, Diodotus, Athenodorus and others.

Late Standing- from the 1st to the 2nd centuries AD. This period is also known as Roman Stoicism, since it was in this state that the development of the doctrine already continued. The main representatives of the third era are Seneca and Epictetus.

What is this philosophy based on?

In order to understand how the sages of those times expressed their thoughts, what exactly they put into the heads of those around them, it is necessary to understand what the teaching of Stoicism was. The theory of this school, which Zeno “patented,” was divided into three parts. It was logic, physics and ethics (this is exactly the sequence). It has often been compared to a blooming garden, where logic is a protective fence, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is its fruit. Similarly, the egg was divided into these three parts - shell, white and yolk (in a known sequence). Zeno's colleague, Cleanthes, believed that Stoicism is a much broader teaching, therefore it should include more components. He introduced such sections as dialectics, rhetoric, politics, ethics, theology and physics. Those sages who continued to develop the doctrine after the death of the founders returned to the original theory, which included three elements.

Logics

The logic of the Stoics consists of purely theoretical conclusions, each of which must be correct. At the same time, we immediately note that it is impossible to compare them, since the theory of each subsequent one refutes the correctness of the previous one. It is necessary to go through this stage of the teaching because, as Chrysippus argued, it changes the state material soul. So, let's briefly consider a few logical conclusions of Stoicism:

• If A exists, then B also exists. A exists, therefore B also exists.
• A and B do not exist at the same time. And we have, which means B cannot exist.
• Either A or B exists. However, B is absent. Therefore A exists.

Physics

To understand this section, it is important to remember that Stoicism in philosophy is a purely material thing. It is on matter that all his teachings are based, which reject feelings, emotions, and other manifestations of something inexplicable and intangible. So, to the Stoics, the world is represented as a living organism, which is a material part of the material God, who created it all. This is exactly what man himself is, whose fate is predetermined by the Creator - in this context it is called fate. Therefore, any objection to the plan of the Almighty is meaningless and even punishable. The Stoics believe that on the way to fulfilling his duty, a person encounters passion, which becomes his main thorn. A person who has gotten rid of passions becomes strong and ready to fight. Strength, in turn, is the subtlest matter that is sent by the Lord.

Ethics of Stoicism

In the ethical aspect, the Stoics are comparable to the cosmopolitans. They assert that every person is a citizen of the universe, and everyone is equal before his Creator. On the same level are masters and slaves, barbarians and Greeks, men and women. Ancient stoicism teaches everyone to be kind, guides everyone on the true path, forces them to develop and improve themselves. At the same time, any deviations from dogma, indulgence in passions or committing sins are considered a lower act. To put it more succinctly, the essence of Stoic ethics is that everyone is part of a mosaic, one of many elements of the overall design. And the one who agrees with this, fate leads him, and the one who refutes his destiny, she drags him along.

Let's summarize this information

Now that we have looked at all the elements that make up Stoicism, let us briefly describe it. It is necessary to live in harmony with nature, without harming others and oneself. It is worth obeying your fate, going with the flow, since everything has its own reason. At the same time, it is necessary to remain impartial, strong and courageous. A person must always be ready to overcome any obstacle in order to become better and more useful to the world and to God. The characteristic of Stoicism also lies in its affects. There are four of them: disgust, pleasure, fear and lust. “Ortho Logos” - correct judgment - will help you avoid these.

Ancient Stoa and its development

In those centuries when Stoicism was just born in Ancient Greece, it was more theoretical in nature than practical. All the philosophers who were his adherents, including the founder himself, labored over the creation of a theory, the written basis of the new school. They succeeded, as we can see today. Specific logical conclusions appeared, a certain material base in the “physics” section, as well as results, which were entitled the word “ethics”. According to ancient Greek sages, the essence of Stoicism lies precisely in argument. This is clearly demonstrated by conclusions that are considered logical. Perhaps it was the Stoics who were the authors of the famous expression “in dispute, truth is born.”

Middle stage of development

At the turn of the century, when Greece became a colony of the mighty and imperious Rome, the knowledge of the Hellenes became the property of the Empire. The Romans, in turn, preferred deeds to words, which is why this philosophical school ceased to be purely theoretical. Gradually, all the knowledge acquired by the Greeks began to be put into practice. It was the quotes of the Greek sages that motivated many warriors. Their words served as support and support for people who were lost in life. Moreover, over the years, Stoicism became so ingrained in society that the lines gradually began to blur (but not completely) between slaves and masters, as well as between the sexes. In a word, Roman society became more humane, reasonable and educated.

Roman philosophy. Stoicism in its final years

At dawn new era this movement has already become a kind of religion and an unwritten life charter for every Roman. All the logic of Stoicism, its conclusions, laws and metaphors are a thing of the past. The main ideas of the Greek sages came to life - the materiality of everything and everyone, impartiality and submission to fate. But here it is necessary to highlight that it was at this time that Christianity began to spread throughout the world, which gradually conquered all the countries of Europe and Asia. But what were things like in the Roman Empire? For the Romans, Stoicism is everything. This teaching was their life, their faith. They believed that man should be as close to nature as possible. He must remain cold, extremely calm and restrained. But main idea, which the Romans themselves derived, based on the knowledge of the Greeks, is the fight against the fear of death. In their opinion, a person who has overcome this flaw becomes one of the most important links in the Universe.

Features of the development of Stoicism in Rome

It is clear that if we are talking about death, about fears, then this is a clear sign that philosophy is turning into theology. The second, as you know, people are afraid of, and therefore they submit to all dogmas, following unconditionally every rule. IN last years During its existence, Roman stoicism acquired not only enormous proportions, but also pessimistic motives. For its representatives (and this was the overwhelming majority of the elite of society), what was important was not self-development and unity with nature, but complete submission to fate, up to the loss of one’s own “I”. The main task was to cope with the fear of death. That is, everyone was determined that at any moment he might not exist, and there was nothing terrible about that. Such motifs are especially clearly visible in the works of Epictetus. They took root after Marcus Aurelius himself, the emperor of a great power, adopted Stoicism.

Contact with Christianity

In the early years of its existence christian religion It did not find adherents in every corner of the globe. For a long time, peoples could not abandon ancient beliefs, the traditions of their ancestors. In some cases they were combined with Christianity (dualism), the same trend was observed in the Roman Empire. From the first century AD, stoicism began to spread in the state on a huge scale. This could be compared to new laws that became mandatory for everyone. The Romans were literally obsessed with apathy and unity with nature, but very soon their views began to change under the influence of new faith. For a long time, the people, including the ruling dynasty, did not accept Christianity. As the years passed, the foundations of these theological teachings began to complement each other. It is worth considering that Christianity at that time was the youngest religion; it needed a certain basis, which Stoicism was able to provide it with. Nowadays we can clearly trace this relationship. After all, in both theories we are told that we cannot be partial, we must not indulge in vices, evil, or fear. Both Christianity and Stoicism are teachings about kindness, knowledge, strength, and also that the ways of the Lord are inscrutable, and each of us must be submissive to the Higher Plan.

Paradoxes and incidents

It often happens that a certain doctrine, which stretches over several centuries, is therefore compiled by different people, as a result, it consists of inconsistencies and some absurdities. This is exactly what Stoicism is in philosophy. This teaching originated in the 4th century BC and existed for 600 years after that. In the course of development, there was not only a transition from apatism to pessimism. At the center of the problem was the fact that man is simultaneously subject to God and his plans, but at the same time remains internally free. It was spiritual restlessness that many Stoics preached, both in Greece and Rome. Modern researchers believe that this is one of the aspects of logical teaching. The first conclusion excludes the correctness of the second, and vice versa.

Stoicism today

It is almost impossible to meet a typical Stoic in the 21st century. Dogma ancient teachings is comprehended either by researchers who are closely involved in this, or by theologians, while adherents of predominantly Eastern religions (there are more similarities with the philosophy of Stoicism). Each of us can, to a small extent, gain the knowledge of ancient authors from the Bible. To be fair, even most of the sacred commandments are based on the ancient theology of the Romans. But sometimes people of our time are still called Stoics. This happens when a person completely gives up, becomes a fatalist, and loses all faith in himself and his capabilities. Such people are typical apaths who take for granted any turn of fate, any loss or discovery. They don’t really enjoy life and don’t get upset if something terrible happens.

Afterword

Stoicism in philosophy is a whole science that has existed for centuries and gave rise to many knowledge and teachings that appeared in the Middle Ages. The Stoics believed that the Universe is material, and each of its cells, each element has its own destiny and purpose. Therefore, under no circumstances should one resist the events that are taking place. Everything that happens has its reasons, and a person living in harmony with nature, with this course of life situations, will be a worthy part of the Universe. The one who opposes all this will be unhappy. For his fate is predetermined in any case, and there is no escape from it. Because everyone has a choice. A person can come to terms with fate and live in happiness and rapture until death. Or resist everything, making yourself and those around you unhappy.

The response to the spread of Cynic ideas was the emergence and development philosophical school Stoics(“Standing” is the name of the portico in Athens where it was founded). Among the Roman Stoics, we should note Seneca, Epictetus, Antoninus, Arrian, Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Sextus Empiricus, Diogenes Laertius and others. Only the works of the Roman Stoics have reached us in the form of complete books - mainly Seneca, Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus.

The founder of this philosophical school is considered to be Zeno of Kition (not to be confused with Zeno of Elea, the author of the so-called “aporias” - paradoxes).

Stoic philosophy went through a series of developments stages.

Early standing (III - II centuries BC), representatives - Zeno, Cleanthes, Chrysippus and others;

Middle standing (II - I centuries BC) - Panetti, Posidonius;

Late standing (1st century BC - 3rd century AD) - Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius.

The main idea of ​​the Stoic school of thought (similar to the main idea of ​​Cynic philosophy) is liberation from the influence of the outside world. But unlike the Cynics, who saw liberation from the influence of the outside world in the rejection of the values ​​of traditional culture, an asocial lifestyle (begging, vagrancy, etc.), the Stoics chose a different path to achieve this goal - constant self-improvement, perception of the best achievements of traditional culture, wisdom .

Thus, the Stoic ideal is sage, rising above the bustle of the surrounding life, freed from the influence of the outside world thanks to his enlightenment, knowledge, virtue and dispassion (apathy), autarky (self-sufficiency). A true sage, according to the Stoics, is not even afraid of death; It is from the Stoics that the understanding of philosophy as the science of dying comes. Here the model for the Stoics was Socrates. However, the similarity between the Stoics and Socrates is only that they base their ethics on knowledge. But unlike Socrates, they seek virtue not for the sake of happiness, but for the sake of peace and serenity, indifference to everything external. They call this indifference apathy (dispassion). Dispassion is their ethical ideal.

However: “After the death of parents, we must bury them as simply as possible, as if their body meant nothing to us, like nails or hair, and as if we did not owe it such attention and care. Therefore, if the meat of the parents is suitable for food, then let them use it, as they should use their own members, for example, a severed leg and the like. If this meat is not fit for consumption, then let them hide it by digging a grave, or scatter its ashes after burning, or throw it away, without paying any attention to it, like nails or hair” (Chrysippus). The list of similar quotes can be continued, and they talk about the justification of suicide, the permissibility in certain situations lies, murder, cannibalism, incest, etc.

The basis of the Stoic worldview, and all Stoic ethics as its conceptual understanding, lies the fundamental experience of finitude and dependence human existence ; experience, which consists in a clear awareness of the tragic position of a person subordinate to fate. His birth and death; the internal laws of his own nature; drawing of life; everything that he strives for or tries to avoid - everything depends on external reasons and is not entirely in his power.

However, another, no less significant, experience of Stoicism is awareness human freedom . The only thing that is completely in our power is reason and the ability to act according to reason; agreement to regard something as good or evil and the intention to act accordingly. Nature itself has given man the opportunity to be happy, despite all the vicissitudes of fate.

Stoic philosophy is divided into three main parts: physics(philosophy of nature), logic And ethics(philosophy of spirit).

Stoic physics composed mainly of the teachings of their philosophical predecessors (Heraclitus and others) and therefore is not particularly original.

IN Stoic logic the discussion was primarily about the problems of the theory of knowledge - reason, truth, its sources, as well as logical questions themselves.

TO characteristic features stoic philosophy also include:

A call to life in harmony with nature and the World Cosmic Mind (Logos);

Recognition of virtue as the highest good, and vice as the only evil;

Definition of virtue as knowledge of good and evil and following good;

A call to virtue as a permanent state of mind and moral guide;

Recognition of official laws and state power only if they are virtuous;

Non-participation in the life of the state (self-disengagement), ignoring laws, traditional philosophy and culture if they serve evil;

Justification for suicide if it is committed as a protest against injustice, evil and vices and the inability to do good;

Admiration for wealth, health, beauty, perception of the best achievements of world culture;

High aestheticism in thoughts and actions;

Condemnation of poverty, disease, misery, vagrancy, begging, human vices;

Recognizing the pursuit of happiness as the highest human goal.

The most famous representatives of Stoic philosophy were Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca(5 BC - 65 AD) - a major Roman philosopher, educator of Emperor Nero, during whose reign he had a strong and beneficial influence on state affairs. After Nero began to pursue a vicious policy, Seneca withdrew from government affairs and committed suicide.

In his works the philosopher:

Preached the ideas of virtue;

Called not to participate in public life and focus on yourself, your own spiritual state;

Peace and contemplation were welcomed;

He was a supporter of a life invisible to the state, but joyful for the individual;

He believed in the limitless possibilities for the development of man and humanity as a whole, foresaw cultural and technical progress;

He exaggerated the role of philosophers and sages in government and all other spheres of life, he despised the simple and uneducated people, the “crowd”;

Considered to be the highest good moral ideal and human happiness;

I saw in philosophy not abstract theoretical system, A practical guide on managing the state, social processes, and helping people achieve happiness in life.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus(121 - 180 AD) - the largest Roman Stoic philosopher, in 161 - 180 AD. - Roman Emperor. He wrote the philosophical work “To Myself.”

TO basic ideas of the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius relate:

A deep personal respect for God;

Recognition of the highest world principle of God;

Understanding of God as an active material-spiritual force that unites the whole world and penetrates all its parts;

Explanation of all events happening around by Divine Providence;

Vision in quality main reason success of any government undertaking, personal success, happiness of cooperation with By divine powers;

Separation of the external world, which is beyond human control. and the inner world, subject only to man;

Recognizing that the main reason for an individual's happiness is bringing his inner world into conformity with the outer world;

Separation of soul and mind;

Calls for non-resistance to external circumstances, for following fate;

Reflections on finitude human life, calls to appreciate and make the most of life's opportunities;

Preference for a pessimistic view of the phenomena of surrounding reality.

Stoicism is a philosophy for strict people. The point, however, is not to be harsh, but to accept life as it can be: unpleasant or joyful. Troubles happen and we shouldn't try to avoid them.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Explain the origin of the word “Stoic.”

2. What is the main idea of ​​Stoic philosophy? What is fatalism?

3. What is positive about a fatalistic view of the world?

4. What is Stoic happiness?

In ancient times philosophical systems already expressed philosophical materialism and idealism, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. The history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main directions - materialism and idealism. The spontaneity and, in a certain sense, straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day.

In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, ideological clashes and struggles were projected in a much clearer form than happens later. The initial unity of philosophy and expanding special scientific knowledge, their systematic identification explains very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences. Philosophy permeates all spiritual life ancient society, she was an integral factor ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solutions were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

Lecture five . MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY

Medieval philosophy, breaking away from one mythology - pagan, was captured by another mythology - Christian, becoming the “handmaiden of theology”, but retained the character of a holistic, all-encompassing world myrrh-views. Chronological framework medieval philosophy determined, naturally, by the temporal extent of the Middle Ages itself. The beginning of the Middle Ages is attributed to the final fall of Rome and the death of the last Roman emperor, the young Romulus Augustulus in 476. The standard periodization is V-XV centuries, a thousand years of the existence of medieval culture.

When and where did the Middle Ages begin? - this era begins when the body of texts of the Old and New Testaments acquires the status of the only unconditional text.

Unlike antiquity, where the truth had to be mastered, medieval world thoughts were confident about the openness of truth, about revelation in Holy Scripture. The idea of ​​revelation was developed by the church fathers and enshrined in dogma. Truth understood in this way itself sought to take possession of man and penetrate him. On the background Greek wisdom this idea was completely new.

Throughout the Middle Ages, there was a philosophical struggle in Europe and the Middle East. On one side was the authority of the church, which believed that religious dogmas should be accepted only on faith. On the other side stood religious philosophers who sought to unite religious ideas with philosophical ones, taken from the teachings of the Greek classics Plato and Aristotle.

It was believed that a person was born in the truth, he must comprehend it not for his own sake, but for its own sake, for it was God. It was believed that the world was created by God not for the sake of man, but for the sake of the Word, the second Divine hypostasis, the embodiment of which on earth was Christ in the unity of Divine and human nature. Therefore, the distant world was initially thought of as built into the highest reality, and accordingly it was built into it. human mind, in a certain way communing with this reality - due to man’s innateness in the truth.

Sacramental Mind- this is the definition of the medieval mind; the functions of philosophy are to discover the right ways for the implementation of the sacrament: this meaning is contained in the expression "philosophy is the handmaiden of theology". Reason was mystically oriented, since it was aimed at identifying the essence of the Word that created the world, and mysticism was rationally organized due to the fact that the Logos could not be represented otherwise than logically.

In the history of medieval philosophy, various periods are distinguished: patristics(II-X centuries) and scholasticism(XI-XIV centuries). In each of these periods, rationalistic and mystical lines are distinguished. The rationalistic lines of patristics and scholasticism are described in detail in the relevant sections, and we have combined the mystical lines into an article mystical teachings middle ages.

Along with Christian, there was Arab, i.e. Muslim and Jewish medieval philosophies.