Approximately, in the sixth century BC, a separate science - philosophy - appeared, due to inexplicable and mysterious circumstances, which simultaneously arose in different and opposite places of the continent - Ancient Greece, India and Ancient China. From there, the development of human nirvas occurs through a different explanation of mythological concepts about cultures. This period of development of philosophical teachings, in the indicated centers of civilizations, forms recent history and a different interpretation of mythology, a rethinking of former values ​​and thoughts.

Philosophy in India marked the beginning of the emergence of philosophical Indian knowledge, which arose BC in the middle of the 1st millennium. The initial “steps” of a person in an attempt to comprehend himself, the world and outer space, living and inanimate nature, led to progress in the development of the human mind, awareness and intelligence, contributed to evolution and differentiation from nature.

Understanding the connection between general culture and the circumstances and events of a past era lies in the very essence of philosophy. The game of the mind, thinking in abstract concepts and the spiritual power of rational-conceptual comprehension of the root causes of all things, which has a global impact on the global course of events, is philosophy.

Taking part in the formation of social ideals, value-worldview and methodological principles, philosophy reminds a person of the social and practical importance of common ideas about the world, raising the question before the thinker about the moral principles of existence. Congenial oriental philosophical teachings India and China, had common points and significant differences, which had an important influence on the development of the cultures of India and China, as well as the peoples in contact with them.

Summary of Drevne Indian philosophy will tell about many events of the era, about the interests and faith of other peoples, giving an excellent chance to enrich your own horizons. The foundation of Indian philosophy is occupied by the sacred scriptures - the Vedas and the Upanishads (notes) to the Vedas. In Indo-Aryan eastern culture, these texts represent the oldest monument of knowledge and teachings accumulated over all times. There are suggestions that the Vedas were not created by anyone, but always existed as truth, due to which the sacred scriptures did not contain erroneous information. Most of them are composed in Sanskrit, a mystical and perfect language. It is believed that with the help of Sanskrit, the universe comes into contact with man, showing the path to God. Cosmic truths are presented in partial records of the Vedas. The adapted part of the scriptures "Smriti", including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is recommended for people who are not so gifted such as workers, women and representatives of lower castes, while the other part of the Vedas - "Shrudi", is feasible only for initiates.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The key source of information about the Vedic stage is the Vedas (translated from Sanskrit “Veda” - “knowledge”, “teaching” or “knowledge”).

The philosophy of Ancient India includes three stages:

1. Vedic – 15th – 5th centuries BC;
2. Classical – 5th -10th centuries BC;
3. Hindu - from the 10th century BC.

But in this article you will learn about the Vedic period, the most significant and absolute. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has continuously taken root and shaped the values ​​of society. According to established traditions, the Vedas include four collections Vedic literature, later overgrown with explanations and additions of ritual, magical and philosophical orders (prayers, magic spells, hymns and chants):

1. "Samhitas";
2. "Brahmins";
3. "Aranyaki";
4. "Upanishads".

The gods differed from people in their omniscience, according to the Vedas, so knowledge was “recognized” and “seen” because it was endowed with a visual nature. This division reflects the historical sequence of development of Indian literature. The oldest collection is the Samhitas, while the last three collections are the resulting explanation, commentary on the Vedas and their additions. As a result, in the subtle literary sense, the Samhitas are the Vedas. Thus, the Samhitas include 4 original hymns: Rigveda (authoritarian knowledge), Samaveda (Veda of chants), Yajurveda (scriptures on sacrifices) and Atharvaveda (knowledge magic spells), borrowing texts from the Rig Veda. Scientists studying Indian philosophical teachings believe that during the formation Indian Vedas, throughout the valley of the majestic Ganges River there was a division of society into classes, but this could not be called slave ownership. The social difference between people only increased social inequality, and marked the beginning of the organization of varnas or castes (differences in position in society, privileges and roles): brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Brahmins were priests; Kshatriyas - warriors who made up the highest social castes; Vaishyas were artisans, farmers and traders; Shudras - represented the lowest classes - servants and hired workers. Next, the Indian state arose. The Upanishads reflected the deepest reflection in the philosophical views of Ancient India.

Upanishads

The main philosophical part of the Vedas are the Upanishads. The literal translation from Sanskrit “upa-ni-shad” means “sitting at the feet of the teacher.” The Upanishads are a hidden teaching that cannot be made public to a large number of people. The text contained in the Upanishads is a statement of heterogeneous philosophical reflections in which a number of issues can be emphasized: adhiyajna (sacrifice), adhyatma (human microcosm) and adhidaivata (deified macrocosm); questions: “What is the position of the sun at night?”, “Where are the stars during the day?” and others. In the Upanishads, the central element is the parallels between the phenomena of micro- and macrocosm, ideas about the unity of existing things. The hidden and deep foundations of the microcosm “Atman” and the macrocosm “Brahman” are revealed, the study of conditionality and expressions. The basis of the Upanishads is generated by the external and internal aspects of existence, focusing on human comprehension of knowledge and moral improvement, posing the characteristic questions of the Upanishads - “Who are we, where did we come from and where are we going?” The essence of being in the Upanishads is designated “Brahman” - the beginning of everything spiritual, the universal and faceless soul of the universe, reviving the universe. “Brahman” is identical, but opposite to “Atman” - the individual principle of the spiritual “I”. “Brahman” is the highest objective principle, while “Atman” is subjective and spiritual. There is a dharma connection here about Samsara and Karma - about the cycle of life, eternal rebirth and the rule of compensation. Understanding a person’s future occurs through awareness of one’s behavior and actions committed in previous lives. Therefore, leading a decent lifestyle represents the future and rebirth in the upper castes or departure to spiritual world. For unrighteous behavior in the current life, leads to future incarnations in the lower classes, and the “Atman” can be reborn into the body of an animal. The main goal of the Upanishads is moksha or liberation from material goods and spiritual self-improvement. Each person is the “smith” of his own happiness and his destiny is shaped by real actions - this is the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

The whole philosophy of India is based on systems. The emergence of philosophical schools began in the sixth century BC. Schools were divided into:

• "Astika" - orthodox schools based on the authority of the Vedas. These included the schools: Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaisheshika;
• Nastikas are unorthodox schools that refute the treatises of the Vedas for being false. These included schools: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka Lokayata.

Let's take a brief look at each of the orthodox schools:

1. Mimamsa or Purva Mimamsa (first) - founded by the ancient Indian sage Jaimini (3rd-1st centuries BC) and included: research, analysis, interpretation and reflection on the sacred scriptures;
2. Vedanta - compiled by the sage Vyasa (about 5 thousand years ago), the main goal relied on self-awareness, the individual’s understanding of his original nature and truth;
3. Yoga - founded by the sage Patanjali (in the 2nd century BC), aims to improve the human spirit through the practice of unifying body and mind, followed by liberation (moksha);
4. Sankhya - founded by the sage Kapila, the school is aimed at abstracting the spirit (purusha) from matter (prakriti);
5. Nyaya - and the laws of logic, according to which the external world exists independently of knowledge and reason. Objects of knowledge: our “I”, body, feelings, mind, rebirth, suffering and liberation;
6. Vaisheshika - founded by the sage Kanada (Uluka) (3-2 centuries BC), which is at the same time an opponent and supporter of Buddhist phenomenalism. Recognizing Buddhism as the source of knowledge and perception, but denying the truth of the facts of soul and substance.

Let's take a brief look at each of the unorthodox schools:

1. Jainism is translated from Sanskrit as “winner”, a dharmic religion, the founder of whose teachings is Jina Mahavira (8-6 centuries BC). The school's philosophy is based on self-improvement of the soul to achieve nirvana;
2. Buddhism - formed in the 5th-1st centuries BC, the teachings of the school assumed 4 truths: 1 - life is like suffering, 2 - the causes of which are desires and passions, 3 - deliverance occurs only after renouncing desires, 4 - through a series of rebirths and deliverance from the bonds of Samsara;
3. Charvaka Lokayata is a materialistic atheistic doctrine and low view. The universe and everything that exists arose naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces, thanks to 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air.

IN Ancient In India, pre-philosophical knowledge was accumulated in the Vedas. The approximate dating of the most ancient Vedic texts goes back to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Veda(from Sanskrit - to know) are collections of ancient myths and mysteries, sacrificial formulas and spells intended for cult use brahmins(priests). From a philosophical point of view, the most interesting texts are called Upanishads(from Sanskrit upa - next to and sad - to sit, i.e. sitting around the teacher with the aim of knowing the truth), in which for the first time an attempt is made to philosophically comprehend the questions posed in earlier Vedic texts. They formulate the main themes of Indian philosophy: the most ancient versions of the origin of the world, the interpretation of the fundamental principle of being; a certain vision of a person’s life destiny - the concept of a limitless circle of reincarnations of the soul ( samsara and law karma) and the thought about the possibility and conditions for the implementation of human freedom, which is capable of overcoming the cosmic law of karma.

These fundamental moral ideas, first formulated in the Rig Veda and the Upanishads, permeate the major philosophies and schools of ancient India. Formed six orthodox, i.e. based on the sacred Vedic knowledge of worldview systems: Vedanta, Mimamsa, Samkhya, yoga, Vaisheshika, Nyaya. All of them, despite their differences, are considered equal in the interpretation of truth; they are all united by a number of common concepts and ideas.

First of all, the central point of all these schools is the doctrine of brahman - the world spiritual principle, from which the whole world with all its elements arises, and atman - the individual soul, the impersonal spiritual principle, “I”. At the same time, Brahman and Atman are identical, i.e. the existence of an individual person is identical with the universal essence of the world. On the one hand, the brahman in the individual is aware of himself, and, on the other hand, at the highest level of the intuitive “I” the atman merges with the brahman.

Related to this is the doctrine of samsara(circle of life) and karma(law of retribution) in the Upanishads. In the teaching of samsara, human life is understood as a certain form of an endless stream of rebirths. And the future birth of an individual is determined by the law of karma. The future of a person is the result of those deeds and actions that a person performed in previous lives. And only one who has led a decent lifestyle can expect to be born in a future life as a representative of the highest varna (class): a brahmana (priest), kshatriya (warrior or government official) or vaishya (farmer, artisan or merchant) . Those who led an unrighteous lifestyle will in the future face the fate of a member of the lower varna - a shudra (commoner) or even worse: his atman may end up in the body of an animal. The stream of reincarnations continues until a person is completely freed from attachment to material existence.

Circle of life eternal, and everything obeys him - both people and gods. The Atman, when it leaves the body, burned on the funeral pyre, under the influence of karma is forced to constantly return to this cycle, to find next incarnations. The most important task of man and the main theme of the Upanishads is to liberate him from the “world of objects and passions.” This liberation is realized through the dissolution of atman in brahman, i.e. knowledge identities your individual soul with the world soul. Awareness of the identity of atman and brahman is genuine, the most true knowledge. Only those who are able to realize this identity are freed from the endless series of rebirths of samsara. The soul of such a person merges with the brahman and remains in him forever. At the same time, she is freed from the influence of karma, rises above joy and sorrow, life and death. This is liberation moksha- and there is the highest goal and the truest path . The condition for its achievement, in addition to higher knowledge, is an ascetic lifestyle.

Thus, a person’s life is an endless chain of rebirths, accompanied by suffering, but he has the opportunity, by merging with brahman, to break the circle of samsara, get out of the chain of births, get rid of suffering, achieving the highest goal - moksha. Life, therefore, is seen as a long process of changing different lives and they must be lived in such a way as to ultimately leave samsara.

Since the 6th century. BC. significant changes are taking place in Indian society: agricultural and handicraft production is developing, social differentiation is increasing, the institution of tribal power is losing its influence and the power of the monarchy is increasing. Unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy emerge, the main ones ajivika, carvaka-lokayata, Jainism, and Buddhism- religious and philosophical doctrine that arose in the 6th-5th centuries BC. and later developed into world religion. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama (623-544 BC) , subsequently named Buddha(from Sanskrit budh - to awaken), because after many years of hermitage and asceticism he achieved awakening, that is, he came to understand the correct path of life.

Gautama was young, healthy and rich. He spent his days serenely and happily, walking in his Garden of Eden and admiring the blooming nature. His palace and garden were completely isolated from the rest of the world; he had never seen it and therefore did not know what was going on in it. It seemed to him that his youth, health and wealth were eternal and unchanging, and his happiness was endless and constant.

But one day he had four significant meetings that radically changed his worldview: with a very old man, a seriously ill person, a funeral ceremony and an ascetic. He realized that human life is mostly filled with suffering and misfortune, and therefore its burden is heavy.

After a long spiritual search, he achieved a true understanding of existence and became Buddha. Buddha rejected the concept of the eternal unchanging existence of the brahman and contrasted it with the doctrine of existence as a process, continuous development emergence and decay , which obeys the law of causality. Buddha considered only one truth to be unconditional: the world is structured in such a way that a person in it - suffering creature . The central idea of ​​Buddhist teaching is liberation from suffering, which found expression in:

four noble truths The first is “truth” suffering

": about the universality of suffering that permeates human existence from birth to death; The second is “truth” causes ": suffering is caused- desire

pleasure, existence; but all our desires are a horizon rapidly receding into the distance, and therefore our life is a constant pursuit of the unrealizable and impossible; The third is “truth” liberation

": suffering can be stopped by renouncing and freeing oneself from desire, that is, by eliminating the thirst for life; the elimination of one's own desires is called asceticism and is the path of correct life in Buddhist teachings; Fourth - “truth” ways ": exists path leading to liberation from suffering is a noble octal a path involving, sinless lifestyle not causing harm to others, practice meditation (from Latin meditatio - concentrated reflection) - deep mental concentration and detachment from external objects and internal experiences. As a result, a transition is achieved from the state of samsara (the cycle of rebirth) to the state nirvana

(Sanskrit - attenuation, extinction) - states of highest enlightenment, wisdom and peace (calmness of the soul). This is a state of supreme bliss, the ultimate goal of a person’s aspirations and existence, characterized by detachment from life’s worries and desires. So, the meaning ancient Indian philosophy was different than in the West. She oriented not to changes in external conditions existence - nature and society, and on self improvement, wore not extroverted, but introverted character. Here wisdom is not associated primarily with the substantiation of theoretical concepts, as in European, but with higher knowledge and self-knowledge through asceticism.

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY– a variety of local characteristics in the context of the generic characteristics of philosophy, which can be reconstructed on the material of texts of Indian culture, in the historical movement of traditionalist polyformism. The proposed method of defiling Indian philosophy is, despite its apparent formality, conceptual, because contains a number of presumptions that mark a certain methodological approach and cultural and chronological parameterization of the relevant material, which do not coincide with a number of others.

PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETING INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. Clarification of the “scope” of the concept of Indian philosophy by “traditionalism” prevents the inclusion in it of those English texts Indian thought of modern and modern times, which are Westernized in character, as well as purely modernist writings in Indian languages, which are usually included in the broad history of Indian philosophy. “Traditionalist polymorphism” includes both the confessional connections of Indian philosophers - within Jainism , Buddhism , Hinduism , as well as forms and literary genres of philosophizing - in the form of traditional debate, as well as index texts such as abhid-harmic matrices, basic texts (prose sutras, poetic karikas), commentaries and specialized treatises in ancient Indian (Sanskrit), Central Indian (Pali, Prakrits) and partly New Indian languages.

The emphasis on the “possibility of reconstructing” means that the “philosophical matter” of Indian culture is not given to us directly, but can be identified by applying European parameters to Indian ideological texts that constitute the unity of certain generic characteristics “ general philosophy" The approach expressed here is incompatible with the currently widespread idea that we should not “impose” such a “too European” cultural universal as “philosophy” on foreign cultural material; but we must understand it based on itself and “get used to” its inner fabric. In this article, this idea is considered untenable both from a theoretical point of view, because, as is known, “the boundaries of my world are the boundaries of my language,” and from a practical point of view, because it denies Orientalism as such, since categories such as “religion”, “literature” ", "mythology", "politics" or "economics" are no less "too European" than "philosophy".

Appeal to the “generic characteristics” of philosophy means the assumption that, firstly, contrary to postmodernism, they exist and are detectable; secondly, the common idea of ​​“Indian philosophy” as mystical, “psychotechnical”, spiritual-practical and “continuum”, as the antipode of the European - theoretical, “professional”, speculative and “conflict” - is recognized as untenable. From a theoretical point of view, because with the denial of generic characteristics in “Indian philosophy” European philosophy doubt arises about the legitimacy of applying the very category of “philosophy” to Indian material, from a factual one, because the material of those Indian texts that are unanimously recognized as philosophical contains, along with spiritual and practical attitudes (not absent in Western philosophy), areas of purely speculative discourse; polemics are not only inherent in Indian philosophy, but also constituted the main way of “philosophizing” in India, and the idea of ​​philosophy as a research-controversial activity was reflected even in Indian definitions of philosophy (see. Philosophy in India ).

By “generic characteristics” of philosophy, universal for the West and East in any historical period and applicable to Indian philosophy as a “species”, we mean (even taking into account the pluralism in the understanding of philosophy among European philosophers) the general unity of the characteristics of philosophy as a theoretical reflection realized in such fundamental algorithms of research activity as criticism of a certain class of judgments and systematization of a certain class of concepts that are applied (and this is the difference between philosophical and other types of rationality) to ideological problems corresponding to the basic, established since antiquity, subjects of “logic”, “physics” "and "ethics" - studies of knowledge, being and goals and values human existence.

The “local characteristics” of the Indian philosophical mentality mean those features that can be understood in the context of the generic characteristics of philosophical rationality. This is, first of all, the original specific dialogical nature of Indian philosophy, expressed not only in the fact that every position of an Indian philosopher is an alternative to the position of a real or imaginary opponent or that the main genre of texts of Indian philosophy - commentary - is built on a polemical principle (the entire history of Indian philosophy is the history of “discussive club"), but also in the fact that the five-term Indian syllogism itself (see. Avayawa ) is, in contrast to the three-term Aristotelian, dialogical, represents persuasion rather than proof, and contains components of rhetorical speech in the form of a clear example and application to the case under consideration in the face of the opponent, the audience and the arbiter of the dispute (in the seven-term and ten-term Indian syllogisms, “nodes” are also explicated "the discussion itself with the opponent). Another specific feature of Indian philosophy is the initial predominance of game analytics and a penchant for formalistic aestheticism: the methods of constructing classifications and definitions were no less important for the Indian philosopher than the material being classified and defined (in a certain sense, and more), and already from the first steps of Indian philosophy in its arsenal is dominated by trilemmas, tetralemmas, antitetralemmas (see. Chatushkotika ), the development of which is far ahead of attempts to canonize “ordinary logic”. The main specific paradigms of Indian philosophy include the “end-to-end” differentiation of the “manifest” and “unmanifest” levels of objects of discourse (see. Vyakta-avyakta ), as well as the conventional and absolute levels of their knowledge itself (see. Vyavaharika-paramarthika ). For the Indian philosopher, being and non-being, truth and error are, as a rule, multidimensional; they reveal various “quantities” and “qualities”, which are the basis for the construction of ontological and epistemological hierarchies and “pyramids”.

The lower limit of Indian philosophy corresponds to the initial stage of functioning of the above generic characteristics of philosophy in Indian culture, which is preceded by periods of not-yet-philosophy. It is impossible to speak about its upper limit (as well as about the Middle Ages), since even today in India traditional methods, subjects and genres of texts of Indian philosophy (in Sanskrit and modern Indian languages) are reproduced, which should be clearly distinguished from modern Westernized philosophical literature.

PRE-PHILOSOPHICAL PERIOD (ca. 10th – 6th – 5th centuries BC) – period of formation “ building materials"for future philosophy. It is presented in the worldview concepts and constructions of individual hymns of the Rig Veda and Atharva Veda, in the cosmogonic correlations of Brahman and Aranyak, in the dialogues of the Upanishads, where, along with the doctrine of karma , samsara and the “higher path”, the “great sayings” are articulated: “I am Brahman », "That Atman is, truly, Brahman,” “That thou art,” intended, probably, for the meditative interiorization by the adept of the secret truth conveyed to him about the incomprehensible unity of the spiritual centers of the individual and the universe, for “one cannot know the knower,” which is therefore defined through negations: “ not this, not that..." (see Veda ). Nevertheless, we are not yet dealing with the above-mentioned generic features of philosophy - due to the absence of the study of ideological judgments and concepts itself. When, even in the most “philosophical” dialogue, the Rishi Uddalaka convinces his disciple-son Svetaketu that in the beginning there was a being and not a non-being, he does not give any argument in favor of his position or against the alternative, but tells the myth of the “self-multiplying” of the existent ( Chandogya Upanishad VI.2). The absence of research activity also determines the absence of philosophical objectivity itself, which cannot be formed before this activity (just as, according to L. Wittgenstein’s analogy, chess pieces do not appear until the invention of the chess game).

PRE-PHILOSOPHY. While the Brahmanistic Gnostics were thinking about the “building blocks of the universe” and the possibilities of getting rid of samsara, the erudite priests in the 8th–5th centuries. BC. began to develop parallel scientific disciplines in the study of sacred ritual and sacred language. This initial experience in the criticism of judgments - dialectics and systematization of concepts - analytics, as applied to the history of philosophy, can be conditionally designated as pre-philosophy. Gathering for their “tournaments,” often organized by local rulers, they discussed particular problems of ritual science and appealed to the audience and arbiters, turning to generally valid rational argumentation, often in syllogistic form. The same scholars classified and hierarchized the elements and levels of speech, texts and sacrifices, sometimes even using the means of metalanguage to describe them. If Indian “pre-philosophy” dealt with ideological themes without the means of rationality, then “pre-philosophy” implemented these means on non-ideological material.

THE INITIAL PERIOD OF PHILOSOPHY in in its own sense- as the application of this toolkit to ideological issues - dates back to the time of the spiritual and cultural crisis of the mid. 1st millennium BC, the Shraman era of Indian civilization, so named due to the avalanche-like and almost synchronous appearance of many ascetic groups (Sanskrit śramana, Pali samañña - ascetic), each of which came out with its own program for achieving the highest good and the majority - in opposition to the Brahmanists. The reasons for the Shramanic “revolution” were the crisis of the solemn ritual, and the new relationship between the Indo-Aryans and the non-Aryan substratum, and the beginning (relatively later) of urban civilization, but the main one was the expansion of intellectual pluralism beyond the boundaries of the debate of priestly colleges. If the question is raised about what or who the gods of the Vedic hymns actually personify, and then about whether these hymns are significant outside the ritual action, then it is only a step from here to next question: Are these acts and actions themselves necessary to achieve the highest good? It was this problem that divided the spiritual elite into “dissidents” and traditionalists, who had to turn to generally valid arguments in front of an audience of the entire Indian society.

THE PERIOD OF SCHOOL FORMATION covers several historical eras (4th century BC – 2nd century AD). Its discussion background is determined by the great opposition of the directions of nastika and astika, which separately do not constitute any single entities, but are in the process of constant pluralization. After the first split in the Buddhist community caused by the group Mahishasaki and the main Buddhist schism of the 4th century. BC, which led to the division of the community into “reformers” Mahasanghikas and "orthodox" sthaviravadas , each of these formations gives many branches (in the historical and philosophical context, the most significant was the formation in the 3rd century BC of the school Sarvastivadas ). In the 4th–3rd centuries. BC. the first split in the Jain community is planned, associated with the name of the eighth “patriarch” of the Jains, Bhadrabaku, and in the 1st century. AD, according to Jain legends, the schism of the Shvetambaras and Digambaras took shape. Among the Brahmanical movements stands out Samkhya , the beginning of which dates back to the Shraman period; indirect evidence suggests the initial stages Vaisesikas ,nyai ,mimansas ,Vedanta.

CLASSICAL PERIOD of Indian philosophy (2nd–5th centuries) – the era of initial system-building, which was realized in the formation of basic texts among the Jains, as well as in the schools of Buddhism and Brahmanism. In the 2nd century. Jain style "Tattvarthadhigama Sutra" , accepted by both the Shvetambaras and Digambaras, and the Vaisesika sutras, in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. – Mimamsa and Karika sutras Madhyamiki , in the 3rd–4th centuries. - Nyaya and Vedanta sutras, in the 4th century. - the fundamental text of the Yogacara “Madhyantavibhagasutra” by Asanga, in the 4th–5th centuries. – sutras yoga and Karika Samkhya - the oldest philosophical tradition was able to present the basic text later than all the others. The significance of the basic texts was to unify the heritage of the respective traditions and to “record” their basic doctrines, which were to form the subject of further exegesis. Significant events were the emergence within the framework of Yogacara of the school of Buddhist logic and epistemology, the “sutras” of which became “Pramana-samucchaya” Dignaghi and the grammatical-Vedantic text “Vakyapadia” Bhartrihari (5th century).

EARLY SCHOOLASTIC PERIOD of Indian philosophy (5th–9th centuries) – the era of compiling normative comments on basic texts, as a result of which they become “complete” philosophical systems – darshans. Commentaries solve two main problems - interpretation of the content of basic texts and construction of new philosophical doctrines on their basis. In a number of cases, commentary-type treatises were compiled - as in Vaisheshika, where “Padart-hadharmasangraha” Prashastapadas was "attached" to Vaisheshika Sutram , but in fact it was an independent composition. Other famous treatises included the seven works of the Buddhist logician Dharmakirti. In the commentary polemics of everyone with everyone, the permanent discussion of Nayaikas and Buddhist logicians stands out; The Mimansakas and Vedantists took a decisive stance towards supplanting Buddhism. The process of polarization has also emerged within individual systems. In Madhyamika in the 6th–7th centuries. there was a division into the Prasangika and matchmaker ; in Mimamsa in the 7th century. schools Kumarils And Prabhakars divided on almost all significant issues almost like different darshans; in Vedanta after commentary activity Shankaras (7th–8th centuries) a school of absolute monism emerges Advaita Vedanta , which soon also splits into two “streams”, and in the 9th century. The school of Bhaskara, opposing Advaita, is formed, refusing to consider the empirical world the result of cosmic Ignorance.

THE PERIOD OF “HIGH SCHOOLASTICITY” (9th–15th centuries) was marked by the gradual “expulsion” of Buddhism from India and, accordingly, a serious narrowing of the circle of real participants in the Indian “discussion club”, the emergence of encyclopedist philosophers such as Vachaspati Mishra (9th century), who worked in the traditions of the five Brahmanical systems, as well as the creation of syntheses such as Nyaya-Vaisesika and "new nyaya" Gangeshi Upadhyaya (13th century), whose achievements are compared with modern logic. Among the main new formations is the school Kashmir Shaivism (from the 9th century), as well as the Vedanta schools that opposed Advaita: growing out of the “limited monism” of Bhaskara bheda-abheda Nimbarki (11th century), vishishta-advaita Ramanuja (11th–12th centuries) and “dualistic” dvaita-advaita Madhva (13th century). This period of Indian philosophy is characterized by pronounced syncretism (Vedanta schools willingly utilize Samkhya models, Samkhya - the positions and paradigms of Advaita Vedanta, etc.). This trend is deepening: it is enough to cite the example of Vijnyan Bhiksha (16th century), who tried to build a system of yoga-Sankhya Vedanta. Original creativity turned out to be the lot of only the new nyaya: Raghunath Shiromani (17th century) and his followers.

The main subjects of discussion during the Shramana period were: are the Atman and the world eternal? Does the universe have boundaries? Are soul and body one? Are human actions effective? Are there “unborn” beings? and does the “perfect” exist after death?; optional: what are the causes of the individual’s states of consciousness? how do they relate to knowledge and the Atman? etc. The problematic fund of Indian philosophy of the era of early and “high” scholasticism has changed significantly in comparison with the Shramanian one. It is also revealed from the most popular subjects of discussion, but, due to the fact that their circle has not only changed, but also expanded beyond recognition, it is advisable here to limit ourselves only to the main “all-Indian” philosophical topics. Since Indian philosophy itself did not know the disciplinary structure philosophical discourse, it is advisable to distribute these “all-Indian” philosophical topics within the extremely broad parameters of the ancient division of philosophical subjectivity into the areas of “logic,” “physics,” and “ethics.”

“LOGIC” can be divided (as ancient philosophers did) into logic in the proper sense and the theory of knowledge, adding semantic problems to them. 1. Discussions on logic are conveniently illustrated by the example of a common Indian syllogism:

(1) The hill is on fire;

(2) Because it smokes;

(3) Anything that smokes is ignited, such as a brazier;

(4) But the hill is smoking;

(5) Therefore, it is ignited.

If the Nayaikas insisted that all the terms of this syllogism are necessary, then the Buddhist logicians believed that they could be completely reduced to three: propositions (1), (2) and (3), or, in other words, (3), (4) and (5) are already quite sufficient for inference. It is obvious that opponents expressed different concepts of the very nature of syllogism: the first saw it as a means of persuasion, the second - proof (the attempt to separate logic from rhetoric dates back precisely to the era of Dignaga). Further, the darshans were divided in the interpretation of the main mechanism of inference - point (3): the Vedantis believed that the “accompanying” of the larger term with the middle ( vyapti ) can be justified by simple induction, Nayaika realists - by a real connection between two real “things”, “smokiness” and “fiery”, Buddhist nominalists - by the recognition of only some a priori relations, for “smoke” and “ignite” are in the relationship of effect and cause .

2. The main discussion field in the theory of knowledge was determined by “discrepancies” in connection with what sources of knowledge ( pramanas ) should be considered reliable and “atomic” - not reducible to others. Charvaka materialists recognized as such only sensory perception ( pratyaksha ), Buddhists and Vaisesikas also added inference ( anumana ), Samkhyaikas and Yogins - verbal testimony ( shabda ), nayaiki - comparison ( upamana ), The Mimaṇṣakas, and after them the Vedāntins also assumed ( arthapatti ), non-perception (anupalabdhi), intuitive imagination ( pratibha ), legend (such as: “They say that a dakshini lives on a banyan tree”), correspondence (such as: “There are one hundred centimeters in one meter”), and also gestures (as a way of non-verbal transmission of information). Each previous of the listed darshans criticized each subsequent one for the introduction of “extra” sources of knowledge that are reducible to the main “components,” and each subsequent one proved their irreducibility to others. The most convenient targets for critics were the extreme positions of the “minimalists”-charvakas and “maximalists”-mimansakas. The subject of the all-Indian discussion was the relationship between perceptual and discursive knowledge: Jains generally considered perception and inference to be a single cognitive process (distinguishing them only as its stages); Yogacara Buddhists created an impassable gap between them, considering them genetically different and responsible for the cognition of existence as it is and the activity of “constructive imagination”; The Nayaikas and Mimamsakas distinguished two stages of perception itself, in the first of which there is a pure reflection of the object, in the second - its introduction into the grid of generic characteristics, etc. ( nirvikalpa–savikalpa ,pratyaksha ). On the problem of criterionology, four “tetralemma” positions were identified. The Mimansakas (followed by the Samkhyaikas) believed that the truth and falsity of any cognitive act are self-authentic and we perceive with our inner eye the correctness and incorrectness of its results; Nayaikas, on the contrary, argued that we come to the knowledge of both truth and falsity in an indirect way, through inference; Buddhists and Vedantists were closer to intermediate positions: the former believed that only falsity is self-authentic, the latter - that only truth.

Discussions on the interpretation of erroneous cognition are best illustrated with the classic example of a folded rope that someone mistakes in the dark for a snake. Buddhists saw here a case of the illusory identity of two things, the Nayaikas and Vaisheshikas emphasized the moment of “revival” of a previously perceived image, the Prabhakara school - the non-differentiation of perception and memory, the Kumarila school - a false connection in the subject-predicate relationship (“This is a snake”) of two real things. Advaita Vedantists strongly criticized all the named participants in the discussion for their inability to answer the main question - how exactly does the snake appear, even for a moment, in the “place” of the rope - and stated that in this case it is not non-existent (for it is for a moment really appeared, causing that feeling of horror that a simple lapse of memory or false attribution cannot cause) and not existing (otherwise in the next moment the frightened person would not realize that she actually does not exist), and therefore her existence can be described as "indescribable." Obviously, we are talking about a transition from the epistemological aspect of the problem to the ontological one (the entire empirical world is neither dry nor non-existent).

3. The main semantic problem was the nature of the connection between the word and its referent. If the Nayaikas and Vaisesikas adhered to conventionalism, believing that the word “cow” is associated with the corresponding animal only as a result of human agreement, then the Mimamsakas were convinced that they were connected by “natural” ties that were not conventional, but eternal. If they are eternal, then the principles they connect are also eternal, including words that should be considered beginningless. The Mimamsakas met the objections of their opponents that words are produced by the speaker with a counter-objection: they are not produced, but only manifested. This doctrine was supposed to substantiate another (here the Vedantists were in solidarity with the Mimamsakas) - the doctrine of the originlessness of the Vedas, which are infallible due to the absence of an Author, and especially of authors, which the Nayaikas and Vaisheshikas insisted on. Another problem: does the signification of a sentence consist of the meanings of its constituent words or does it contain something more than their sum? The Prabhakara school took the second position, the Kumarila school took the first position, and the Nayaikas took a compromise position.

“PHYSICS” of Indian philosophers includes a wide range of problems that could be conditionally (using the thematizations of European philosophy of the New Age) distributed between ontology, anthropology, cosmology and theology.

1. Among the discussions on ontological problems - related to the fundamental characteristics and modes of being - stand out the debate on the existential status of universals, which were hardly less relevant for medieval Indian philosophy than for contemporary Western philosophy. Buddhists defended extremist nominalism, which denied not only the existence of universals outside things, but also their very identity - classes of things were defined through the negation of their negations ( apoha-vada ); Prabhakara's school was close to conceptualism, believing that universals have a positive nature, but reduced them to the objective similarity of things; The Samkhyaiks admitted that universals exist before and after individual things, but denied their eternity; finally, the Nayaikas adhered to an extremist realism, considering universals not only to be beginningless and eternal, but to be separate things accessible to special forms of perception, along with a relation of inherence connecting them with empirical things. It is natural that the most heated discussions took place between the extreme “parties” of Buddhists and Nayaikas.

Another problem was related to the ontological status of non-existence. The statement: “There is no jug on the table” was interpreted by the Buddhists as: “There is no presence of the jug,” and by the Vaisesikas as: “There is the absence of the jug.” For the former, the non-existence of something is derived from the lack of perception of its possible signs; for the latter, non-existence is not only “contextual”, but also has an independent reality (therefore it becomes a separate category), and even “existential”, because one can distinguish between its varieties, which are usually numbered four (see Abhava ). The problem of darkness was also typologically close: for Nayaikas it is only a negation of light, for Vedantins it is some positive essence.

2. The main discussions in anthropology were related to the existence, quantity and characteristics of the spiritual principle of the individual - Atman. The Charvaka materialists and almost all Buddhists denied it (the latter sometimes agreed to recognize it at the level of conventional truth); "heterodox" Vatsiputri Buddhists accepted something like a pseudo-Atman ( pudgala ) to explain the law of retribution; Jains, Nayaikas, Vaisesikas and Mimamsakas considered him numerologically infinitely multiple and active subject of knowledge and action; Sankhyaikas and yogis - multiple and pure light, completely passive (all functions are performed for it by the mentality- antahkarana ); Vedantists – with a single and pure consciousness. Buddhists debated with Brahmanists (and with their own “heretics”), Vedantists with both “activists” and Samkhyaikas, and the latter, in turn, tried to justify the impossibility of the unity of the Atman by differences in the existence of individuals. The Brahmanists also criticized the concept of the Jains, who considered the soul jiva proportionate to the body: they pointed out to them that such a soul must be “elastic”, expanding in one incarnation to the size of an elephant and shrinking to the size of a worm in another. The disagreements also concerned the composition human body: The Nayaikas insisted that it consists only of earth atoms, the Sankhyaikas - that all five primary elements are its causes.

3. Discussions on the explanation of the world were conducted primarily around the problem of the source of the universe and were directly related to theories of causality. Buddhists proposed to consider the world a serial sequence of “point” events, defending the interpretation of the effect as the destruction of the cause ( asatkarya-vada ); Nayaikas, Vaisesikas and partly Mimamsakas saw the sources of the world in atoms, which are “assembled” and “separated” by the action of factors external to them - in accordance with their doctrine of the effect as a new beginning in comparison with its causes, with which it correlates as a whole with parts (arambhaka-vada); Samkhyaikas and yogis represented the universe as a manifestation of primordial matter prakriti – they considered the effect to be a real transformation and “revelation” of the cause ( parinama-vada ); finally, Advaita Vedantists adhered to a view of the world as an illusory projection of the Absolute-Brahman created by cosmic Illusion - the cause, in their opinion, is only apparently transformed into its “effects” ( vivarta-vada ).

4. In connection with rational theology, several positions have been identified in Indian philosophy. Discussions were conducted primarily between those who recognized the existence of the Divine ( isvara-vada ) - Nayaikas, Vaisesikas, yogis, Vedantists, and those who denied it ( nirishvara-vada ) – materialists, Jains, Buddhists, Samkhyaikas, Mimansakas. But even within the framework of “theism” (theism can be spoken about here only in quotation marks, because Indian philosophy did not know anything like Christian creationism, with all the consequences of the absence of this concept), several models were distinguished: Ishvara - “first among equals” of spiritual principles as pure subjects, indifferent to the world (yoga); Ishvara is the architect of the world and the designer who organizes the creation of things from their “components” in accordance with the law of karma (Vaisheshika and Nyaya); Ishvara as the personification of the impersonal Absolute, carrying out design activities in the game ( Leela ), with the assistance of cosmic Illusion (Advaita Vedanta).

“ETHICS” was distributed in the discussions of Indian philosophers between ethical issues in the proper sense (the universality of moral precepts and the motivation of the sense of obligation) and soteriology as the doctrine of the highest goal of human existence.

1. Among the actual ethical problems, the issue of the imperativeness of the law of non-harm was discussed - ahimsa in connection with the moral legitimacy of performing ritual instructions, which implied the possibility of its violation (in the case of certain sacrifices). Jains, Buddhists and Samkhyaikas considered the requirements of the law of ahimsa to be unconditional and therefore denied the possibility of any justification for its violation, even for “sacred purposes.” The Mimansakas, on the contrary, insisted on the immutability of ritual prescriptions and believed that since they should be seen as the very source dharma , then the violations of ahimsa they commit should be considered completely legitimate. Another discussion was conducted within the framework of the mimansa itself: the Kumarila school considered the main motive for fulfilling ritual instructions to be the promised fruits for this, and the Prabhakara school considered the desire to fulfill duty for the sake of duty itself and the special feeling of satisfaction that accompanies it.

2. In the all-Indian debate on the interpretation of the nature of “liberation” ( moksha ) the majority of votes were cast in favor of understanding liberation from suffering, samsara and karmic “connectedness” as a radical cessation of all emotionality and individual consciousness. This conclusion follows not only from the concept of nirvana as the “extinguishing” of all vitality in classical Buddhism, but also from the formulations of most Nyaya Vaisheshika philosophers, who sometimes compared the state of “deliverance” with the drying up of fire after the combustion of fuel, and from the concept of final elimination in Samkhya and yoga , and from the ideas of the Mimamsakas. This position was opposed by the interpretations of some Vaishnava and Shaivite schools (thus, the Pashupatas believed that in “liberation” the possession of the perfections of Shiva is achieved) and, most of all, the Advaita Vedantists, who understand “liberation” as the individual’s awareness of his identity with the Absolute, which is bliss (ananda). There were serious disputes between opponents. Vatsyayana in "Nyaya-bhashye" substantiates the view that bliss should not be understood differently than the cessation of suffering, and if we consider that it means pleasure, then such a state should not differ in any way from samsara, and the Vedantist Mandana Mishra substantiated the illegality of identifying a positive emotional state with the absence of negative ones. In the introduction to Sridhara's Nyaya-kandali, the Vaisesika argues that arguing for "bliss" on the basis of the authority of the Upanishads is insufficient, since it is advisable to turn to these texts when we no longer have other sources of knowledge. However, the nayyaik who preceded Sridhara Bhasarvajna opposed the "negative" definition of moksha, insisting that both consciousness and bliss should be found in this state. But the later Samkhyaikas solved the same problem in exactly the opposite way: happiness cannot be the goal of human existence, because it is inseparable from suffering.

Is individual consciousness preserved in “liberation”? Sankhyaikas, yogis and Vaisesikas were in solidarity with the Vedantins, answering this question in the negative, but for different reasons. According to the Samkhyaikas, consciousness is the result of the union of the spiritual subject with factors foreign to it, therefore, the liberated “pure subject” must already be outside consciousness; according to the Vedantins, “liberation” is the merging of the individual with the Absolute, just as the space occupied by a pot, according to Shankara’s analogy, merges with the space of the room after it is broken. They were opposed by "theistic" - both Vaishnava and Shaivite - movements, many of which positively considered the possibility of understanding highest state as the co-presence and correspondence of “liberated” souls and the Divine, and partly also of Jains, in whom each “liberated” soul restores its originally inherent qualities of omniscience and power.

Can we hope for complete “liberation” during our lifetime? Most Nayaikas and Vaisheshikas believed that it occurs only with the destruction of the bodily shell of the one who has achieved true knowledge. However, Uddyotakara and the Samkhyaikas distinguished, as it were, the first “liberation” and the second: the preliminary one is feasible in the last incarnation of the one who has achieved knowledge, the final one - after his physical death (Uddyotakara believed that at the first stage the residual “fruits” of accumulated karma have not yet been exhausted) . The Vedantists most consistently defended the ideal of “liberation during life”: the mere presence of a body as a residual fruit of karmic seeds does not prevent the liberation of its bearer.

Three positions also emerged in the debate about the relative “proportions” of fulfilling ritual prescriptions and the discipline of knowledge as a means of achieving “liberation.” Consistent nonconformists here were, in addition to Jains and Buddhists, who rejected Brahmanic ritual practice in principle, also Samkhyaikas and yogis, who saw in it conditions not so much for “liberation”, but, on the contrary, for “enslavement” in samsarism. Shankara, Mandana Mishra and other early Vedantists took an intermediate position: only knowledge is “liberating,” but the correct fulfillment of ritual instructions “purifies” the adept on the path to the highest goal. The Mimansakas, as ideologists of ritualism, as well as some Nayaikas, insisted to a greater extent on the need for a “path of action.” Accordingly, those who were more loyal to ritual practice did not insist that the condition for “liberation” was the severance of all ties with the world, while their opponents were partly more prone to rigorism in this matter, defending the “monastic” ideal.

The discrepancies were related to whether the adept’s own efforts were sufficient for “liberation” or, in addition, the help of the Divine was also required. Complete “self-liberation” was advocated by Jains, “orthodox” Buddhists, Samkhyaikas and Mimansakas. Mahayana Buddhists, yogis, Vaishnava and Saivite schools, representatives of “theistic Vedanta,” as well as some Nayaikas (Bhasarvajna and his followers) to varying degrees accepted the need for help from the pantheon. Those who considered this help necessary were also divided into “radicals” and “moderates”: the former, unlike the latter, did not consider any human effort necessary at all, understanding “liberation” as a pure “gift”. Discussions between Vedantists and Mimamsakas were also conducted on the problem: is it even possible to “earn money”? greater good any effort? The Vedantists, in contrast to the Mimansakas, who believed that it is developed, in addition to knowledge, by the exact fulfillment of sacred instructions, believed, without rejecting the prescribed actions, that it is realized as spontaneously as a girl suddenly discovers that she has a long-forgotten gold necklace.

Literature:

1. Chatterjee S.,Datta D. Introduction to Indian Philosophy. M., 1955;

2. Radhakrishnan S. Indian Philosophy, vol. 1–2. M., 1956–57;

3. Shokhin V.K. Brahmanistic philosophy: initial and early classical periods. M., 1994;

4. It's him. The first philosophers of India. M., 1997;

5. Lysenko V.G.,Terentyev A. A.,Shokhin V.K. Early Buddhist philosophy. Philosophy of Jainism. M., 1994;

6. Deussen R. Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophie, Bd I, Abt. 3. Lpz., 1920;

7. Dasgupta S. A History of Indian Philosophy, v. 1–5. Oxf., 1922–55;

8. Strauss O. Indische Philosophie. Münch., 1925;

9. Stcherbatsky Th. Buddhist Logic, v. 1–2. Leningrad, 1930–32;

10. Hiriyanna M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. L., 1932;

11. Potter K. Presuppositions of India's Philosophies. Englewood Cliffs (NJ), 1963;

12. Warder A. Outline of Indian Philosophy. Delhi, 1971;

13. Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, gen. ed. K.N.Potter. Delhi a. o., Princeton, v. 1, Bibliography, comp. by K.N.Potter, 1970, 1983, 1995;

14.v. 2, Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology. The Tradition of Nyāyavaiśeṣika up to Gañgeša, ed. by K.H.Potter, 1977;

15.v. 3, Advaita Vedanta up to Śaṃkara and His Pupils, ed. by K.H.Potter, 1981;

16.v. 4, Sāṃkhya: A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy, ed. by G.J.Larson and R.Sh.Bhattacharya, 1987;

17. v. 7, Abhidharma Buddhism To 150 A.D., ed. by K.H.Potter with R.E.Buswell, P.S.Jaini and N.R.Reat, 1996.

V.K. Shokhin

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY OF NEW AND CONTEMPORARY TIMES. The formation and development of Indian philosophy of modern times is usually associated with the name R.M. Roy , the founder of the trend that dominated in philosophical life India 19th century, later called neo-Vedantism. However, the opinion is expressed that the first theorist of the New Age was the nameless author of the religious and philosophical treatise “Mahanirvanatantra”, written in Bengal presumably between 1775 and 1785. The humanistic orientation and educational pathos of this treatise are combined with an active rejection of polytheism, the demand for faith in a single personal God and an orientation towards strictly spiritual veneration. It is believed that Roy was greatly influenced by the Mahanirvana Tantra.

Roy, as well as his like-minded people and followers in the 19th century. (D. Tagore, K. C. Sen, Dayananda Saraswati ,Vivekananda and others), despite all the differences in their views, relied on Vedanta, although they considered it possible to combine its elements with elements of other darshanas (most often Samkhya, Vaisheshika and Nyaya). Recognition of the deep unity of man and the world in the spiritual fundamental principle and the internal relationship between Brahman and the world form the basis of their ontological views. Focus on rational cognition, flowing in concepts, judgments and conclusions, and the requirement to limit the claim of the orthodox to the infallibility, uniqueness and exclusivity of the shruti (Vedic texts) while recognizing the “super-intelligent” cognitive abilities of man and his need for the sacred scripture lay at the basis of their epistemological views. Worldview and worldview of the theorists of the 19th century. was determined to a large extent by external factors due to the peculiarities of the colonial situation of the country. They became acquainted with teachings based on different worldview, theoretical-cognitive and logical-methodological principles. Neo-Vedantists did not create independent complete systems. The re-emphasis of the inherited mental material was centered around the problem of man, forming the best features of neo-Vedantism: a critical charge, a humanistic and moral principle, an appeal to reality. Active activity in favor of social reforms, carried out in line with the reformation of Hinduism, constituted the most noticeable aspect of their activities. As a result, for the 19th century. Vivekananda's teachings contain recognition of the need for both religious and social renewal, transformation of social structures, natural-scientific exploration of the world and equal dialogue with the Western world.

Processes comparable to the formation and development of neo-Vedantism, inseparable from the reformation of Hinduism, were also carried out within the framework of Muslim tradition. In search of a theoretical basis for the “teaching of self-help,” Sid Ahmad Khan turned to Islam, emphasizing the need for a new reading of the Koran. Later, in the first half of the 20th century, poet and thinker M.Iqbal developed the idea of ​​the “perfect man” entirely on the principles of “reconstructed” Islam.

In modern times, the following thinkers and social and political figures of the 20th century can be called neo-Vedantists: M.K.Gandhi ,A. Ghosha ,R. Tagore , Raman Maharshi, Kr. Bhattacharya ,Bh.Dasa ,S. Radhakrishnan. Their life paths and destinies sometimes differed quite significantly: Gandhi and Ghosh (until 1910) were political figures; Tagore - a famous poet and writer; Ramana Maharshi - a famous yogi; Das, Bhattacharya and Radhakrishnan connected their lives with universities, although they did not always and did not fully confine themselves to teaching. Despite all the differences in the initial ideas, the way they were presented and the influence on the socio-political life of the country, the work of these thinkers depended on religious thinking, was based on Vedanta, was marked by ethical pathos, inseparable from the ideas of universality and permeated with humanistic ideas. Gandhi proceeded from the position of the inseparability of the religious and the political and, basing his teaching on the thesis of identifying religion with morality, substantiated the demand for non-violent conduct of the liberation struggle. Ghosh, having experienced special mystical insights, created a complexly structured, all-encompassing system of “integral yoga”, explaining the process of involution of Nirguna Brahman, inseparable from the process of evolution, interpreted as the spiritualization of matter and the emergence of a “perfect” person capable of living forever. The pathos of life affirmation, a joyful emotional and aesthetic perception of the world, delight in the wealth of life’s impressions is the essence of Tagore’s reading of the Upanishads. Ramana Maharshi made the problem of understanding the relationship between subject and object central to his teaching, but, having come to the conclusion that introspection is the only way to comprehend one’s “I,” he at the same time considered active, socially oriented activity compatible with this kind of spiritual practice.

Formation of the so-called "academic philosophy" can be attributed to con. 19th century In those educated in the middle. 19th century The three central universities taught not only classical dar-shanas, but also Western philosophical systems. The approach to Western teachings was selective. In the last decades of the 19th century. the ideas of positivism were especially influential J.Mill And G. Spencer , utilitarianism I. Bentham , intuitionism A. Bergson. Indian intellectuals were attracted by Bergson's perception of reality, which was in tune with their worldview, based solely on intuition, understood as the specific capabilities of the mind and not reducible to either sensory experience or logical thinking. The systems were later greeted with enthusiasm Hegel And Kant , for Hegel's idea of ​​the Absolute Spirit seemed comparable to the Vedantic understanding of Nirguna Brahman, and Hegel's interpretation of the relationship between religion and philosophy seemed compatible with the traditional understanding of religion as the “practice of philosophy” and philosophy as the “theory of religions.” Kant's work aroused interest primarily because of his doctrine of moral duty, in which they saw a certain kinship with the ideas of Mimamsa.

The work of Bhattacharya, Das and Radhakrishnan represents a serious rethinking of Vedantic schemes and the desire to creatively synthesize the spiritual heritage of the East and West to develop independent systems capable of explaining the full extent of the connections of the universe and the foundations of man’s existence in the world. Various concepts were the main components of their systems: the concept of the Absolute as truth, value and reality (Bhattacharya); the relationship between the one and the many (Das); philosophical understanding religion as a phenomenon of a predominantly ethical nature (Radhakrishnan). The relationship between national heritage and the influence of Western systems also had different manifestations: Bhattacharya, in interpreting the essence of philosophy, relied on dar-shans and also attracted the ideas of Kant, neo-Kantianism , logical positivism; Das tried to combine the ideas of Hegel and Fichte and preserve Vedantic ideas about world cycles; In his interpretation of the problems of knowledge, Radhakrishnan relied not only on Vedanta, but also on Bergson's intuitionism.

In the 1950s–90s. a certain contribution to the development of philosophy (mainly, to understanding the problems of history as a process, incentives for movement social life, social progress, philosophical problems of science and culture) were contributed by socio-political figures (J. Nehru, J. P. Narayan, H. Kabir). In the works of members of ashrams and various religious organizations primary attention is paid to Vedanta: it is interpreted as a substantiation of mystical doctrines (“Society of Divine Life”); then as the only adequate justification for universal human sublime moral ideals(“Ramakrishna Mission”, “Brahma Kumari”); then as a spiritual discipline that has much in common with modern science, but surpasses generally valid empirical knowledge with the ability to “grasp” the hidden truth (“Ramakrishna Mission”, “Advaita Ashram”, etc.). Still, from the 2nd floor. 20th century philosophical problems are developed mainly by representatives of academic circles, i.e. professional philosophers at universities and research centers.

Modern Indian philosophy cannot be reduced to any one system or direction. It is a pluralistic complex of various systems and teachings. We can talk about different models of theoretical thinking; the focus on philosophical classics is maintained; both a revaluation of the heritage and an appeal to the methodological foundations of Western systems are obvious ( analytical philosophy– N.K.Devaraja, B.K.Mathilal, G.Mishra; phenomenology and existentialism - J.A. Mehta, J. Mohanty, R. Sinari; Marxism - S. Gupta, K. Damodaran, D. P. Chattopadhyaya (art.)). The concepts of synthesis and comparative studies are widely used, when comparative philosophy is understood as an independent theory with its own methods, objects and goals of research (D.M.Datta, Devaraja, Mohanty, K.S.Murthy, P.T.Raju, D.P. Chattopadhyaya (Jr.). The number of works devoted to the history and theory of the historical and philosophical process is growing every year (R. Balasubramaniya, S.P. Banerjee, Kalidas Bhattacharya, T.M.P. Mahadevan, K.S. Murthy, T.R. .V.Murthy, R.Prasad, Raju, M.Chatterjee), as well as issues of social philosophical knowledge(P. Gregorius, Daya Krishna, K.S. Murthy, Chatterjee, Chattopadhyaya (Jr.). The annual sessions of the All-India Philosophical Congress, held since 1925, contribute to the mutual rapprochement of scientists. Indian Council for philosophical studies(created in 1981) coordinates scientific work and determines priority areas of research.

Literature:

1. Kostyuchenko V.S. Classical Vedanta and neo-Vedantism. M., 1983;

2. Litman A.D. Modern Indian philosophy. M., 1985;

3. It's him. Philosophy in independent India. Contradictions, problems, discussions. M., 1988;

4. Murty K.S. Philosophy in India. Traditions, Teaching and Research. Delhi, 1985.

O.V.Mezentseva

1) Veda (Sanskrit Véda - “knowledge”, “teaching”) - a collection of ancient (25 thousand years BC) sacred scriptures of Hinduism in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what was heard).

2) Structure (the Vedas were divided by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious songs about rituals)

2. Brahmanas (books written by servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest lyrics of hermit songs)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas is stated (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) - therefore they are also called “Vedanta” (the end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (7th century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key Ideas

The idea of ​​the absolute (the origin of existence).

“The Absolute is Brahman”:

· Brahman – Living being, the father of all things, in its highest manifestations acts as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

· Thought (reflection)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created all things from himself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

The idea of ​​God.

· God is the firstborn (born of Brahma). Gods n. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

· The gods did not at first possess immortality. Immortality is an acquired quality as a result of evolution (the life of the Gods - cosmic cycles), after the creation of the drink of immortality “Sacred Amrita”

3. The idea of ​​immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

· Atman is neither born nor dies

· There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of ​​eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change in life form.

· Cycle: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of ​​karma (“kar” in this case is action).

· Basis on the universality of relationships, laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determining factor of karma. “As we think, so we become” - Upanishad.

· Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable and is not identified with fate.

6. The idea of ​​many inhabited worlds that we can acquire according to the law of karma.

Material (lower)

· Spiritual (highest)

7. Idea righteous path leading to merger with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

Yoga is the path of merging the individual soul with the deity, acquiring Brahma, entering the path of immortality, achieving a higher state in which the senses, thought, and mind are inactive, and a person is concentrated.

4) School classification

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as a source of supreme knowledge)

· Sankhya

The essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is the abstraction of spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: The goal is control of the mind through meditation (dhyana), awareness of the difference between reality and illusion and achieving liberation.

· Mimamsa (early)

Essence: the goal is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not accessible to reasoning or observation.

· Mimamsa (late) = Vedanta

Essence: Mainly focuses on self-realization - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman.

· Nyaya

Essence: examines mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and evidence.

· Vaisesika

The bottom line: while recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and logical inference, Vaisesika at the same time believes that souls and substances are immutable facts. She does not associate herself with problems of theology.

2. Unorthodox(besides the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people’s suffering is their own actions and you can stop suffering and achieve nirvana by practicing self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

- about suffering (throughout life)

- the cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

- cessation of suffering (renunciation of desires)

middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control.

The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct, known as the “three jewels of Jainism,” are the path to liberating the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

The essence: the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces. There are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all things.

Ticket 6: Philosophy Ancient China: basic
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ancient Chinese philosophy emerges and develops from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC. The Zhanguo period in the history of ancient China is often called the “golden age of Chinese philosophy.” It was during this period that concepts and categories emerged, which would then become traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Ideas of Taoism

The main idea of ​​Taoism is the assertion that everything is subordinate to Tao, everything arises from Tao and everything returns to Tao. Tao is the universal Law and the Absolute. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - de. If a person knows the Tao and follows it, then he will achieve immortality. To do this you need:

Ø Firstly, the nutrition of the spirit: a person is an accumulation of numerous spirits - divine powers, which corresponded to the heavenly spirits. Heavenly spirits keep track of a person's good and evil deeds and determine his life span. Thus, nourishing the spirit is performing virtuous deeds.

Ø Secondly, it is necessary to nourish the body: adherence to a strict diet (the ideal was the ability to feed on one’s own saliva and inhale the ether of dew), physical and breathing exercises, and sexual practice.

This path to immortality was long and difficult, and not accessible to every person. Therefore, there is a desire to simplify it by creating a miraculous elixir of immortality. Emperors and representatives of the nobility especially needed this. The first emperor who wished to achieve immortality with the help of the elixir was the famous Qin-shi-huangdi, who sent expeditions to distant countries to search for the components necessary for the elixir.

Philosophical schools

1. Taoism - the universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from plants to humans, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves people alone. Representatives of this period: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wen Tzu, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan.

2. Confucianism (rujia) - the ruler and his officials should govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the governance of an oppressive centralized state were studied. Representatives: Confucius, Zengzi, ZiSi, YuZho, Zi-gao, Mencius, Xunzi.

3. Moism (mojia) - the meaning of the teaching was the ideas of universal love (jian ai) and prosperity, everyone should care about mutual benefit. Representatives: Mo Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang Tzu, Fu Dun.

4. Legalism - dealt with problems of social theory and public administration. The idea of ​​universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, ShangYang, Han Feizi; Shen Dao is often included here as well.

5. School of names (mingjia) - the discrepancy between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-kung.

6. School of “yin-yang” (yinyangjia) (natural philosophers). Yin is heavy, dark, earthly, feminine. Yang is a light, bright, heavenly, masculine principle. Their harmony is a condition for the normal existence of the world, and imbalance leads to natural disasters. Representatives: Tzu-wei, ZouYan, Zhang Tsang.

Ticket 7: Teachings on Tao, Te and Wu Wei by Laozi.

"Tao Te Ching" is the fundamental treatise of the philosophy of Taoism. Most modern researchers date the Tao Te Ching to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. The authorship is attributed to Lao Tzu (Li Er, Li Dan, Li Bo-Yan) - lived at the end of the 7th - first half of the 6th century. BC. (according to some sources, date of birth is 604 BC). He was a princely official and was in charge of the archives.

DAO: Tao is the “path”, the essence of all things and the total existence of the universe.

Tao incorporeal and unyielding sensory perception, it is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless, endless and eternal, empty but inexhaustible. It is the progenitor of everything, including the gods.

Tao (according to the summary) is the natural path, the law of all things.

DE: On the one hand, De is what feeds Tao, makes it possible (option of the opposite: Tao feeds De, Tao is limitless, De is defined). This is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which the Tao way of things can take place.

De is the art of making the right decisions vital energy, correct behavior. But De is not morality in the narrow sense. De goes beyond common sense, encouraging a person to release life force from the path of everyday life.

Te (according to the summary) is what feeds and nurtures universal qualities, attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu O Te

“Creating and nurturing what exists; creating, not possessing what is created; setting in motion, not putting effort into it; leading, not considering oneself a ruler - this is what is called the deepest De.”

“A person with higher Te does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous; a person with lower Te does not give up the intention to do good deeds, therefore he is not virtuous; a person with higher Te is inactive and carries out inaction; a person with lower Te is active, and his actions are deliberate ".

"De appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of De."

Wu-Wei: Wu-Wei is contemplative passivity. This word is often translated as “inaction.” The most important quality of non-action is the absence of reasons for action. There is no thinking, no calculation, no desire. Between the inner nature of a person and his action in the world there are no intermediate steps at all. The action occurs suddenly and, as a rule, reaches the goal in the shortest way, since it is based on perception here and now. Such a world-being is characteristic only of enlightened people, whose minds are soft, disciplined and completely subordinate to the deep nature of man.

According to Lao Tzu, “If anyone wants to master the world and manipulates it, he will fail. For the world is a sacred vessel that cannot be manipulated. If anyone wants to manipulate him, he will destroy him. If anyone wants to appropriate it, he will lose it.”

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a refusal of emotional involvement in action, and only as a consequence - minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient philosophy: features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy emerges in the 7th – 8th centuries. BC. during the formation of a slave society. It arises and develops in large economic centers and city-states located at the intersection of important trade routes.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing mythological ideas about the world and man.

The mythological idea and the related religious idea are gradually giving way to philosophy, which is distinguished by the desire for a rational theoretical justification of the positive knowledge that the first philosophers possessed (Babylon, Dr.

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages in the development of ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Pre-Socratic) (VII-first half of the 5th century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Eleatic schools, school ancient dialectics(Heraclitus)

Ø Classical period (V - IV centuries BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø Hellenistic era (IV century BC – 528 BC) – Eclecticism, Skepticism, Philosophy of Epicurus, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Eleatic. Parmenides, Zeno, Melissus. The focus is on being. Only it exists - there is no non-existence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same thing.

Diversity of philosophical schools of ancient India

Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and cannot be divided.

3. Miletus. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes. Based on the proposition “something does not come from nothing” (the modern law of conservation), they assumed the existence of a certain fundamental principle of everything. Thales called it water, Anaximenes called it air, and Anaximander called it apeiron. The Milesians assumed that the world was animated, that everything has a soul, it’s just that in the “animate” there is more of it, and in the “inanimate” there is less, but it permeates everything.

4. School of Heraclitus. Heraclitus of Ephesus did not have direct students, but had many followers at all times. He considered the world to be an ever-moving creation of fire (his phrase is “everything flows, everything changes”), and the struggle and war of opposites is the cause of all change. Heraclitus was called the Gloomy for the gloom of his views, his vision of war in everything.

5. Aristotle's school. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is the internal force that contains the final goal and result). The root cause of movement is God.

6. School of Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras proclaimed that the basis of everything are small “seeds” (Aristotle later called them “homeomeries”). There are countless types of them, and some global Mind organizes them into bodies visible world. Interestingly, Anaxagoras tried to explain phenomena like eclipses and earthquakes by natural causes, and for this he was convicted of insulting the gods and sentenced to death, but was saved through the efforts of his friend and student Pericles.

7. School of Empedocles. Empedocles believed that the world is based on four elements - fire, water, air and earth, and everything is obtained by mixing these elements, or “roots”. Specifically, bone is made up of two parts water, two parts earth, and four parts fire. But the “roots” are passive principles, and the active principles are Love and Hate, the interaction and correlation of which determines all changes.

8. Plato's school. Plato believed the soul to be immortal, unlike the body, and identified three principles in it: Reasonable, Volitional and Passionate. He considered dialectics (in the sense of constructive debate) to be the main method of philosophy.

9. School of Sophists. Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus and others. Representatives of the school had different moral, Political Views. They were united by the idea that any thing can be described in different ways, a penchant for philosophical play on words and the creation of paradoxes, the belief that everything is relative, nothing is absolute, and man is the measure of all things. Many were atheists and agnostics.

10. School of atomists. Leucippus stood at the origins of the school of atomists; his teaching was developed by Democritus. This amazing sage said that all bodies consist of tiny particles - atoms, between which there is emptiness. He also implied the presence in a person of a soul, which is also a collection of special atoms and is mortal with the body. "Only in general opinion there is color, in opinion there is sweet, in opinion there is bitter, but in reality there are only atoms and emptiness.”

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of already existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable conclusions, in their opinion. In some ways, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

12. Stoicism. The teachings of Zeno of Citium (not the one in Eleatic, another). The doctrine of predestination, which must be followed by suppressing passions. Pleasure, aversion, lust and fear must be rejected. The ideal of the Stoics is the imperturbable sage. Such stars as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher-emperor, belonged to the school.

13. Skepticism. Pyrrho, Enisidemus. The teaching of skeptics is that you cannot be sure of the existence of anything. And since you cannot be sure of the existence of a thing, then you need to treat it as something apparent, calmly and calmly. Ten reasons justifying a skeptical attitude (ten skeptical paths of Enisedem).

14. Hedonism. The teaching that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

15. Epicureanism. A special case of hedonism. “Pleasure is the highest good.” This is a teaching that did not set as its goal finding the truth, but only the practical side of happiness. Epicurus’s “fourfold remedy”: do not fear the gods, do not fear death, good is easily achieved, evil is easily endured.

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Textbook by Ya. S. Yaskevich “Fundamentals of Philosophy”, divided into chapters. The electronic version of the book and the PP of the diploma project of the same name based on this book can be downloaded from the page Diploma, coursework and tests.

Philosophy of Ancient India

The first philosophical texts of the Indian tradition were Upanishads(end of the 2nd millennium BC). They represented the interpretation of the ancients sacred texts– Vedas intended for religious use. Already in the Upanishads, the main themes of Indian philosophy were formed: the idea of ​​a single, infinite deity and the doctrine of karma and rebirth.

A number of Upanishad hymns talk about a self-sufficient deity. All other gods are only his manifestations. He is the creator, preserver and destroyer of all things. He is the fullest and most real being. He is incorporeal Brahman. The manifestation of Brahman is Atman- the inner immortal “I” of the world, the “world soul”. The world soul is identical to the individual human soul. The individual Atman is uncreated and indestructible, it ultimate goal is merging with the world soul. The real purpose of human life is to destroy the causes that hinder liberation Atman from external covers, physical and spiritual shells. The same one who reckless And unclean, will not reach this state, but will enter the cycle of birth and death, into a chain of dependent rebirths determined karma, the cumulative result of a person’s thoughts, words and actions.

From the 6th century BC e. time begins classical philosophical systems. It is customary to distinguish between orthodox (or brahminical) systems of thought, recognizing the authority of the Vedas as Revelation, and unorthodox systems, denying the unique authority of the Vedic texts. TO unorthodox systems are considered Buddhism And Jainism. The six most influential classical orthodox systems (schools) are: nyaya And Vaisheshika, Samkhya and Yoga, Vedanta And Mimamsa form three pairs of friendly doctrines that recognize and complement each other’s basic provisions.

Jainism originated in the mainstream of the hermit tradition, which polemicized with orthodox Vedism. Nevertheless, the doctrine of Jainism develops a number of ideas of the Upanishads. Thus, the concept of rebirth of the soul leads Jains to the conclusion that everything that exists in the world has a soul: animals and insects, plants and leaves. Jiva- individual souls who are naturally capable of perfection, and ajiva– space, ether, matter, which are the main components peace.

Philosophy of Buddhism
From book

Religious doctrine Buddhism developed in polemics with the orthodox Brahmanistic idea of ​​the substantial soul - atman. If in most Brahmanistic systems the atman was considered as a temporary form of the highest spiritual substance that opened the world through a series of emanations, and the liberation of the atman was interpreted as its merging with this cosmic creative principle, then Buddhism put forward the idea of ​​​​the absence of the soul as a whole, eternal and unchanging principle.

Brahmanical systems arise in polemics with the Buddhist point of view on human nature, the nature of salvation and the possibility of knowing the world.

Nyaya(“entering the subject”) is a philosophical school that studies the mechanism of cognition and defines the rules for conducting discussion, which made knowledge of its principles mandatory for anyone engaged in systematic philosophizing.

Vaisesika(“philosophy of differences”) is a system related to Nyaya.

Briefly about the philosophy of India

It proceeds from the fundamental knowability of the world and considers adequate knowledge as the main goal of systematic thinking. The main theme of this school is the classification and characteristics of the objects under consideration.

School Samkhya comes from the premise that there are two eternal principles in the world: purusha - a principle similar to spirit, and prakriti - matter. Purusha has consciousness, but is completely passive, and by itself is not able to create anything, while prakriti is active. However, this active principle is devoid of consciousness. Only from the interaction of both principles does the world arise.

Sankhya is the theoretical basis for yoga– practical techniques for achieving liberation. However, unlike Samkhya, yoga contains the idea of ​​a supreme personal deity. The yoga technique is based on the belief that a person, through the concentration of spiritual forces, meditation and asceticism, leading to calmness of temperament, can achieve liberation from material things - prakriti.

Vedanta(“completion of the Vedas”) - a doctrine that was completed at the end of the 8th century - the most influential direction in Indian philosophy. Its doctrine is based primarily on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

Philosophy of Vedanta
From book
"History of Philosophy in Schemes and Communications."

Mimamsa- a school adjacent to Vedanta. Its central problem is the knowledge and description of the true ritual necessary for one who wishes to achieve salvation. Within Mimamsa there is usually a distinction between Purva Mimamsa. Study dharma– a person’s life duty is the main theme of purva=mimamsa. Jaimini (c. 5th century BC) in the Mimamsa Sutra or Jaimi-ni Sutra describes various types of sacrifices and their purposes.

Thus, the features of Eastern philosophical thinking are associated with what is specific to Indian and Chinese cultures understanding of man's place in the world. Ideal human existence in these traditions, it is not so much the realization of oneself in the subject area, but the focus on getting used to the environment and the focus of human activity on one’s own inner world, which determines the rational-practical orientation of the philosophy of Ancient China and the religious-mythological nature of the main philosophical schools of Ancient India.

Ancient Indian philosophy is characterized by development within certain systems, or schools, and their division into two large groups.

Philosophy of ancient India

The first group is the orthodox philosophical schools of Ancient India, recognizing the authority of the Vedas (Vedanta (IV-II centuries BC), Mimamsa (VI century BC), Sankhya (VI century BC). BC), Nyaya (III century BC), Yoga (II century BC), Vaisheshika (VI-V centuries BC)). The second group is heterodox schools that do not recognize the authority of the Vedas (Jainism (IV century BC), Buddhism (VII-VI centuries BC), Charvaka-Lokayata).

Yoga is based on the Vedas and is one of the Vedic philosophical schools. Yoga means “concentration”; the sage Patanjali (2nd century BC) is considered its founder. Yoga is a philosophy and a practice. Yoga is an individual path of salvation and is intended to achieve control over feelings and thoughts, primarily through meditation. In the yoga system, faith in God is considered as an element of a theoretical worldview and as a condition for practical activity aimed at liberation from suffering. Connection with the One is necessary to realize one's own unity. Upon successful mastery of meditation, a person comes to a state of “samadhi” (i.e., a state of complete introversion, achieved after a series of physical and mental exercises and concentration). In addition, yoga also includes rules for eating. Food is divided into three categories according to the three gunas of material nature to which it belongs. For example, food in the Huns of ignorance and passion can increase suffering, misfortune, and illness (primarily meat). Yoga teachers Special attention draw attention to the need to develop tolerance towards other teachings.

Jainism. The Jain school arose in the 6th century BC based on the development of teachings (sages). It is one of the unorthodox philosophical schools of ancient India. The philosophy of Jainism got its name from one of the founders - Vardhaman, nicknamed the winner (“Jina”). The goal of the teachings of Jainism is to achieve a way of life in which it is possible to liberate a person from passions. Jainism considers the development of consciousness to be the main sign of a person’s soul. The degree of consciousness of people varies. This is because the soul tends to identify itself with the body. And despite the fact that by nature the soul is perfect and its possibilities are limitless, including the limits of knowledge; the soul (bound by the body) also carries within itself the burden of past lives, past actions, feelings and thoughts. The reason for the limitation of the soul is in attachments and passions. And here the role of knowledge is enormous, only it can free the soul from attachments, from matter. This knowledge is transmitted by teachers who have conquered (hence Gina - Winner) their own passions and are able to teach this to others. Knowledge is not only obedience to the teacher, but also correct behavior and course of action. Liberation from passions is achieved through asceticism.

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What is yoga

Yoga is a set of various spiritual, mental and physical practices developed in different directions of Hinduism and Buddhism and aimed at managing the mental and physiological functions of the body in order to achieve an elevated spiritual and mental state for the individual. In Indian philosophy, yoga is one of the six orthodox schools of philosophy.

Yoga contains the basics of interpretation of the origin of the world and understanding of human nature, methods of spiritual self-improvement. The concept of this doctrine is great amount admirers. As a special system of ancient Indian wisdom, yoga consists of theoretical and practical foundations, some sections, methods and directions. The principles of yogic practice are mentioned in the Vedas, Ramayana and Mahabharata (part of the Bhagavad Gita). The term “yoga” itself can be found in the early Upanishads, which are commentaries on the Vedas.

Philosophy of classical yoga

The basis of yoga philosophy is Samkhya. So, all existence includes two substances Prakriti and Purusha. Prakriti represents everything material in existing world. This is something that can be seen, heard or felt in some other way, and recorded with high-precision instruments.

The concept of “Purusha” contains the spiritual principle, the so-called eternal Spirit. Ishvara - God among all spiritual beings - is a manifestation of Purusha. He did not create the world and does not control it, but he has the power to unite and separate the spiritual from the material. If Prakriti cannot be realized, then Purusha is conscious. If Prakriti is constantly changing, then Purusha is not subject to change, therefore he is outside of time and space. He is like an observer of the changing picture of the world.

In the teachings of yoga, a person, like the whole world, is a kind of microcosm that unites Prakriti and Purusha. The material in a person is his physical body, thoughts, emotions, memory, etc. The spiritual, that is, Purusha, represents his consciousness, the so-called “I” - unchanging and eternal. Purusha consciously directs Prakriti. This can be compared to people lost in the forest, where Purusha is legless and Prakriti is blind. And only by uniting will they be able to make their way through the forest and free themselves.

From attachment to the objective world, which gives rise to desires and expectations, a person experiences suffering. As long as we are attached to the forms of Prakriti, we leave imprints (vasanas) in our buddhi (instrument of perception of the external world), therefore our Karma will exist - a dependence of a cause-and-effect nature. After the death of the physical body, vasanas remain, and the soul passes into another entity. This is called reincarnation, and the series of rebirths is called the wheel of samsara.

It is possible to free yourself from suffering, says yoga. It is the practice of yoga, a set of exercises for the body and spirit, and philosophical reflections that will help you realize Purusha, give up striving for something material, and free yourself from attachments. After this realization, the soul leaves the wheel of samsara. The achieved existence can only be compared with Ishvara - there is no suffering, but there is awareness.

There are many different schools of yoga, but 4 main directions can be named:

• Bhakti - the path of love and devotion
• Jnana - the path of knowledge
• Karma is the path of action
• Raja - the path of introspection

Bhakti yoga

Bhakti is translated from Sanskrit as love and devotion. Thus Bhakti Yoga is connection with God through love and devotion. The main practice of this type of yoga is deep meditation. A person must constantly feel close spiritual contact with his deity, literally touching his souls. You need to concentrate on your idea of ​​the high qualities of God as a person, but not a being in the flesh, but a highly spiritual and highly developed entity. After this, a person must realize that he is not just a mortal, temporary material body, but an eternal and immaterial soul.

An important point in the practice of Bhakti yoga is the continuous daily repetition of the Hare Krishna Mahamantra, also called Japa meditation. To do this, you need to purchase or make your own rosary, consisting of 109 beads, where the 109th bead will be the starting one.

Maha-mantra: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare.

Through this practice, a person gradually restores the once lost connection with God. This practice is considered Yuga Dharma, i.e. the most authoritative practice in the current era of Kali Yuga.

Jnana yoga

Jnana Yoga is a path of inquiry that aims to overcome the limitations of the intellect or logical abilities of a person. Higher awareness can never arise from rational thinking. Jnana yoga is the path to intuitive knowledge, and it is illogical - neither logical nor illogical, surpassing both.
On this path, a person asks questions about the essence of being and his true nature. Success on this path requires effort, focus, and total absorption in the study. Without these qualities, insight is impossible. Insight does not mean receiving standard answers, but gaining intuitive knowledge.

For his successful work You need to carefully adhere to three things:

1) SHRAVAN or listening: listening to sacred scriptures, philosophical discourses, and above all, living Masters of spirituality with personal experience Realities that can transmit their vital impulse to those who come into contact with them, since it is in the company of a truly awakened soul that a person awakens from his long slumber.

2) MANAN or thinking: it consists of intensive and thoughtful reflection on what is heard and understood, in order to concretize the abstract and make intellectual concepts the pulse of immediate life through the careful exercise of discrimination that at every step distinguishes truth from falsehood. This leads to the liberation of a person's soul from the loop of egoism by all possible means at his command. It's similar to churning butter from buttermilk.

3) NIDHYASAN, or practice: it consists of transferring the center of gravity from the ephemeral and changing “I” to the permanent and eternal “I”, from the circumference to the center of one’s being. This gradually produces non-attachment to the pairs of opposites - wealth and poverty, health and illness, fame and shame, pleasure and pain, etc. — in which everyone tends to go with the flow in the ordinary course of existence.

Karma yoga

Karma yoga is also known as buddhi yoga, one of the four main types of yoga in Hindu philosophy. Karma yoga is based on the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred Hindu scripture in Sanskrit, and its main meaning is to perform prescribed duties (dharma) without attachment to the fruits of labor. As a result of such activities, it becomes possible to achieve moksha (salvation) or love of God (bhakti). This occurs by performing prescribed duties without selfish motives with the sole purpose of pleasing God.

Raja yoga

Raja Yoga (Royal Yoga), also known as classical yoga, which is based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The main goal of Raja Yoga is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion, and achieve liberation.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing + LIST OF BOOKS. CYCLE OF ARTICLES ON PHILOSOPHY. Part 3

Since the practice of Raja Yoga is divided into eight stages, it is also called Ashtanga yoga"eight limb yoga":

• Pit- norms of behavior - self-restraint
• Niyama- following religious rules and prescriptions - complete dedication to spiritual practices
• Asana- unifying mind and body through physical activity
• Pranayama- control of breathing, leading to unification of body and mind
• Pratyahara- distraction of the senses from contact with their objects
• Dharana- purposeful concentration of mind
• Dhyana- meditation (internal activity that gradually leads to samadhi)
• Samadhi- a peaceful superconscious state of blissful awareness of one's true nature

Sometimes these eight levels are divided into four lower and four higher. In this case, lower levels are associated with hatha - yoga, and the highest ones belong to raja - yoga. Simultaneous practice of three higher levels called samyama.

Hatha yoga

This direction of yoga proclaims the unity of the spiritual and physical. With special practices, it allows you to achieve harmony between these two aspects. The practice of hatha yoga is based on the following components:

• 1. Pranayama - special breathing exercises, the purpose of which is to teach a person emotional self-control. In the process of performing pranayama, internal organs are also massaged.
• 2. Asanas - performing exercises in special poses in combination with special breathing techniques and concentration. Hatha yoga consists of the practice of static exercises that can be performed while inhaling, exhaling, or holding the breath. Asanas should not be done to the limit of your physical strength. On the contrary, they should relax and pacify. It is important that there is no discomfort. The appearance of pleasant sensations during asanas is an indicator that prana is circulating correctly throughout the body.
• 3. Meditation. Her main goal is to listen to herself, to shed all the “excess” and pretense. In the process of relaxation, physical and psychological relaxation occurs, energy is directed to the spiritual improvement of a person.
• 4. Shatkarmas - exercises and methods of hatha yoga that allow you to cleanse the internal organs. Shatkarmas are a general name for cleansing practices. It can be translated from Sanskrit as “six actions.” Indeed, hatha yoga has six practices for cleansing the body:
  • Dhouti – techniques for cleansing the digestive tract;
  • Basti – toning and lavage of the large intestine;
  • Nauli (Lauliki) – special techniques for massaging the abdominal area to strengthen the abdominal organs;
  • Neti – cleansing and rinsing the nasal passages;
  • Kapalabhati - a set of three simple techniques that allow you to cleanse the anterior lobe of the brain;
  • Trataka – strengthening the optic nerves and eyes, improving vision, developing mindfulness through the technique of close contemplation of an object.
• 5. Proper nutrition. In yoga, special attention is paid to this aspect. To be healthy and happy with life, it is enough to eat simple, natural food and not overeat.

The practice of hatha yoga allows you to achieve different goals: awakening Kundalini - a special energy concentrated at the base of the spine; restoration or maintenance of health, longevity; awareness of your higher self (atman); achieving harmony between external and internal, a state of enlightenment (samadhi).

The purpose of the lecture: to acquaint the student with the specifics of the philosophical knowledge of Ancient India.

In India, the equivalent of the term philosophy is darshana. Indian philosophy is a specific phenomenon in world philosophy. This is due to a number of factors, in particular Indian religion and culture. As noted in previous lectures, philosophy in the first stages of its formation is very closely connected with both mythology and religion. But the religion in India is the religion of Buddhism first and foremost. And Buddhism is a religion of experience, not faith, like Christianity. This leaves its mark on philosophy, which will be discussed further.

The formation of Indian philosophy occurs at the end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st millennium BC.

The distinctive features of ancient Indian philosophical teachings are:

• · close connection between philosophy and religion
• · weak connection with science
• · focus on a harmonious relationship between man and nature

The first philosophical systems of India are associated with the appearance of the Vedas. These are religious and mythological texts borrowed from the peoples of ancient Arya. The Aryans came to the valley of the Indus and Ganges rivers in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. and brought with them a special culture and worldview, which influenced the first philosophical ideas of Ancient India. The Vedas show the origins of India's first philosophical ideas, although they still embody a mythological worldview. The Vedas are the fundamental texts (Veda-knowledge). They have been written for many centuries.

As in China, philosophy in India arose during the period of feudal fragmentation. Society is differentiated and divided into castes, which in ancient India are called Varnas:

There were 4 Varnas:

• Brahmin priests
• Kshatriyas - people who engage in military labor
• Vaishyas - people engaged in agricultural, craft or trade work
• Shudras - people who perform the most base work

The Vedas consist of four parts - samhitas. Samhitas are large blocks of the Vedas. The main samhitas are

• · Samovedy is a collection of religious chants and ceremonies
• · Rig Vedas are chants and hymns to the Gods
• · Atharbaveda are chants for sacrifices
• · Yajurveda - a collection of spells

Other parts of the Vedas included the Brahmanites - interpretation and explanation of the Samhitas, the Aranyakas - tales of forest hermits, the Upanishads (to sit at the feet of the teacher and listen to his instructions - translated in Sanskrit) - this is actually the philosophical part of the Vedas itself, which contains the first natural philosophical, cosmogonic and ethical ideas. The language of the Vedas is Sanskrit. Anonymity is a characteristic feature of the Vedas and Eastern philosophy.

However, the Vedas were all borrowed as a literary and philosophical treatise from the Aryan people, so a certain problem arises with understanding the texts. Interpretation of texts is the first step towards the emergence of philosophy. In the future, such a problem would be encountered in the philosophy of the Middle Ages, when many ways to interpret the Holy Scriptures arose.

Teachings of the Upanishads

Cosmogony. The Supreme God in the Upanishads is Indra. This is the king of all gods. He is in charge of triloka, i.e. three worlds. It was believed that our world consists of three worlds. There were other Gods. The god of the earth is Agni, the god of the sky is Surya, the god of retribution and punishment, the lord of day and night is Varuna. Next, changes occurred in the pantheon of Gods and Indra, Agni and Surya were replaced in Brahmanism and Hinduism by the creator god Brahma, the guardian god Vishnu and the destroyer god Shiva. God Vishna also had other emanations: Krishna (black) and Buddha (enlightened). God Surya had three sons, one of them was Manu - a demigod, half-man. He created man. Man was created in the image of Manu. At creation, man received a soul - this is the immortal divine part and a body - the material part. The soul wants to reunite with the world of the Gods that gave birth to it. But for this you need to achieve spiritual enlightenment. Therefore, the soul is forced to move from body to body and travel through samsara - this is the endless reincarnation of the soul and its wandering across the earth. In order for the soul to reunite with the world of the gods, a person must behave in a certain way. There is an ethical code for each varna - dharma. This term has many interpretations in Indian philosophy. Dharma is the rules that a person of a certain varna must adhere to. Another interpretation is the purpose of a person, which he must understand and implement. By understanding and fulfilling his dharma, a person can achieve moksha. Moksha is enlightenment, the achievement of cosmic consciousness. It was believed that the human soul, having achieved moksha, is freed from samsara and returns to the world of the Gods. After life, a person accumulates his karma. Karma in general is the law of cause and effect. Another, more philosophical interpretation of karma is accumulation energy potential the human soul during its incarnation. This potential is decompensated after the death of a person. If the potential is positive, then the person receives a stronger embodiment, if negative, then a worse embodiment. For example, it was believed that if a person commits murder, he will incarnate somewhere in a remote desert area, where there will be few people, and he will live like a hermit. Philosophical systems, which recognized the existence of samsara, karma, dharma and moksha, were created in order to help a person find his path (Tao - as the Confucians would say) and save him from suffering.

Let us consider the main ideas of Indian philosophical schools.

Philosophical schools at first were divided on the basis of whether they recognized the Upanishads or not. If schools recognized the authority of the Vedas, then such schools were called orthodox or consonant. If the authority of the Vedas was not recognized, then these were critical or heterodox schools.

Critical schools:

• Ajivika (naturalistic-fatalistic doctrine)
• · Buddhism
• · Jainism
• · Charvaka (Lokayata).

Consonant schools:

• · Nyaya
• Vaisesika
• · Vedanta
• · Sankhya
• · Mimamsa
• · Yoga.

Jainism (6th-5th centuries BC)

The main work of the Jains is Siddhanta.

The founders of Jainism are the 24 saints. The names of only two have reached us: Parshva and Mahavir. Jiva (living) and ajiva (non-living) (translated from Sanskrit). Therefore, Jainism is a philosophy of living things. Jains accepted isansaruikarma; Jain philosophy tried to find a way. This was the path that a person must follow in order to get rid of the endless series of reincarnations - i.e. samsara.

Ontology. The ontological characteristic of Jainism is dualism. So, the Jains recognized two principles: jiva - the living principle and ajiva - the non-living principle. The inanimate is the materialistic beginning of the world (burkhgal), the inanimate consists of atoms (anu). The inanimate includes space, time and movement (dharma), as well as rest - non-movement (adharma). Living things have such an attribute as animation.

Living is spiritual, i.e. everything that has a soul. Not only people had a soul, but also plants, animals, even rocks and minerals. What is the soul? If in medieval philosophy the soul was considered as a particle of God in a person, then among the Jains the soul is the accumulation of consciousness or awareness of being. This is, in fact, a very promising idea in Jain philosophy, which is partly confirmed by modern research in quantum physics. And since everything around is alive and even animals have a soul, it is necessary to observe vows - first of all, the vow of non-harm to all living things. It was believed that failure to fulfill this particular vow worsens karma the most. That is why the monks used brooms to sweep the path, so as not to kill living things on their way (bugs, butterflies), the mouth was covered with a bandage so as not to swallow living things.

The philosophy of Jainism proceeds from the fact that the world consists of 5 worlds: the lower world - the world of demons and the world of shadows (spirits), the earth was in the middle world, the gods lived in the upper world, the genies and 24 righteous people - the founders of Jainism - in the uppermost world.

Epistemology. The epistemology of Jainism is characterized by epistemological optimism. In Jain philosophy, it was believed that the soul can comprehend the truth. This is one of the main epistemological features of Jainism and Indian philosophy in general. It is the soul that can know the truth. Consequently, Jains and representatives of Indian philosophy denied rational knowledge. In other words, the epistemological characteristic of Jainism is irrationalism. Jains distinguished two stages of knowledge, ranking from the lowest:

• · Sensory cognition, i.e. through the senses - direct cognition
• · Above sensory cognition when the object is cognized directly by the soul, and not by the senses or mind. This knowledge has three stages:
  • 1. a person can understand the essence of individual objects or phenomena,
  • 2. a person can know the thoughts of others,
  • 3. all-seeing, when a person cognizes absolute truth and is freed from karma and samsara.

The Jains divided the sources of knowledge into authoritarian (shruti) and non-authoritarian (mati). According to the Jains, authoritarian knowledge had more reliable information, since the creators of such knowledge had all the vision and, therefore, the absolute truth.

Ethics. The goal of human life is to achieve moksha, i.e. cosmic consciousness, which will allow one to accumulate good karma and rid the human soul of samsara. To do this, it was necessary to fulfill the vows that the righteous prescribed and improve your soul and mind (knowledge of the three pearls).

Parshva defined four vows for his followers:

• · Don't lie
• · Don't steal
• · Do not kill (do no harm - ahimsa)
• · not to become attached to anyone or anything

These vows were supposed to be performed in order to improve one's karma, and ideally to achieve moksha.

Subsequently, Jainism was divided into two movements: Shvetambara (Sanskrit, lit. - dressed in white) - moderate Idigambara (Sanskrit, lit. - dressed in space) - extreme.

Chervaka (lokayata).

The etymology of the word charvaka is not yet clear enough. There are several options for the origin of this term: in honor of the founder of this philosophical movement with a similar name Chervar; from the word chew - charv (so ethical principle of this trend was - eat and be merry), finally, from the phrase - a pleasant word - charvak. Most researchers agree on the latter option, and many consider the hermit monk Brihaspati to be the founder of Charvaka.

Ontology. The ontological characteristic of Charvaka is materialism, and at the same time atheistic materialism. The followers of this school not only do not recognize the orthodox scripture, but also do not recognize the existence of gods. And if there are no Gods, then there is no immortality. Of course, a person has a soul, but his soul dies with the death of his body.

The primary elements of existence are the four elements of nature - water, fire, air, earth. Consequently, the teaching of Chervaka is spontaneous materialism, and since there are 4 first elements, we get spontaneous materialistic pluralism. They are characterized by activity and self-movement. Consciousness also consists of essence in a certain proportion. After the death of the body, consciousness also disappears, i.e. is not immortal.

Ethics. The purpose of human life is happiness, expressed in pleasure, pleasure. This ethical position is called hedonism. “Eat! Drink! Be merry” is the ethical slogan of the Charvakas. Then, in later philosophy, the Charvakas tried to introduce the principle of measure in order to get rid of the accusation of corruption of morals. But hedonism still remained the central principle of their ethics.

Epistemology. In epistemology, the Charvakas were sensualists. They believed that sensory knowledge is the main source of knowledge. Reason in epistemology is subordinate to feelings. This significantly impoverishes the epistemological theory, since neither reason, nor intuition, nor even insight are recognized as a method of knowing the truth. This ultimately led Charvaka epistemology to a dead end. Buddhism (6th-5th centuries BC)

Buddhism is considered the earliest of the world's religions, but contains many mature philosophical ideas. The Shakyamuni Buddha of our era lived 2,450 years ago in the advanced culture of North India. After achieving enlightenment, he shared it with all his followers for another 45 years. It became widespread due to suitable conditions for testing this teaching by followers. His teaching was able to pass the test of life and, perhaps, therefore became widespread in practice. Three important canons were formed Buddhist teachings: Tibetan (Kangyur and Tengyur), Chinese and Pali. Kangyur includes 108 volumes with 84,000 different instructions. Dying at the age of 80, Buddha said: “I can die happily. I have not hidden a single teaching from you. Be your own guiding light.” 1 The depth and breadth of his teachings became the basis for many philosophical schools.

Buddha came from the Shakya family, which was part of one of the Aryan tribes. Real name is Sidhartha Gautama. Buddha was from the warrior caste. His parents ruled the region that is now Nepal's southern border with the capital Kapilavastu. Buddha was the last hope for his parents to become the heir to the throne, since they had no other children. Buddha was very an unusual child. His parents decided to show him to monks who were masters of meditation in order to determine what his purpose was. They said that he could be an excellent warrior and ruler, but if he understood the conditionality of this world, he would instantly renounce everything and create his own teaching.

For the first 29 years of his life, Buddha, according to legend, lived under the full protection of his parents; they hid the suffering of this world from him. But then he left his palace and suffering appeared before him - illness, old age and death. After this, the Buddha left the palace in search of something that could resolve his mental confusion and contradiction. He wanted to find true meaning, enduring values ​​that a person could rely on in his life. For a long time he was a hermit - he studied with various ascetics, monks, sages, and yogis. Many famous schools of philosophy already existed in North India, and Buddha studied with the best teachers. One day he was sitting under a Tree and meditating with ascetic yogis. Soon, on the sixth day, enlightenment descended on him on the May full moon - and he became Buddha (enlightened).

45 years later he died on the same day in May on a full moon. For the first 7 weeks after his epiphany, he was still sitting under the Bodhagaya Tree. After Buddha achieved enlightenment, the main Hindu Gods Mahadeva and Brahma turned to him. They turned to him for advice with a request to give them teachings. What is the essence of enlightenment? Buddha discovered the true nature of the mind, as Buddhists say, he saw a mirror under the reflection, an ocean under the waves. Enlightenment is the complete comprehension of the mind. 7 weeks after Enlightenment, Buddha began to teach people. This first happened in Deer Park in Sarnath. When Buddha was preaching, 4 monks approached him, who adhered to and preached the orthodox teaching. They could not stand it and approached Buddha to ask why he was so happy and shining so much. Buddha gave liberation seekers 4 noble truths:

• · The conditioned state is suffering. Any physical incarnation is suffering; all living things are born and die, illness and death are also suffering.
• · Suffering has a reason
• · Suffering has an end
• · There are ways to this end

This path of liberation from suffering is the Eightfold Path. It included:

• 1. right thinking - understanding the four noble truths
• 2. right determination - the manifestation of the will to change life in accordance with the 4 noble truths.
• 3. correct speech - do not lie, do not slander, do not gossip (Buddhists believe that those who gossip in the next life have bad breath)
• 4. correct actions - do not steal, do not kill, do not lie, do not become attached.
• 5. correct lifestyle - chaste,
• 6. right effort - curbing desires and bad thoughts
• 7. The right direction of thoughts is to think about enlightenment, do not plunge your mind into despondency, envy or melancholy.
• 8. correct concentration, i.e. meditation practice

Difference between Buddhism and Christianity. As noted at the beginning of the lecture, Buddhism is a religion of (experience) practice, and Christianity is a religion of faith. This is a fundamental difference and, of course, incl. the difference is both philosophical and ideological. Buddhism suggests that everything you believe in must be tested in practice. In Buddhism there are no orthodox scriptures that give prohibitions and commandments. All Buddha's instructions are rather advice on how to live correctly, and Buddha suggests not to believe - but to try it in practice. If you don't like it, you can quit at any time. Christianity presupposes believing and believing categorically (and if not, then you can be subjected to the Inquisition). Moreover, Christianity presupposes humility, since everything that happens to a person is retribution for his sins. Buddhism proceeds from the fact that salvation can be achieved during life and is the path to liberation from suffering. And this is a fundamental difference. Christianity calls for coming to terms with life, and Buddhism calls for correcting life on its own. In Buddhism, a person can be happy here and now, but in Christianity only after death in heaven. Christianity did not recognize the transmigration of souls, but Buddhism has the concept of reincarnation.

Therefore, as we see, the central problematic of Buddhism is ethics, and not ontological issues. At the center of the philosophical problems of Buddhism is a person who suffers and who is looking for a way out of his miserable situation. Issues of morality and human behavior play an important role in Buddhism.

Modern Buddhism recognizes that the Buddha was one of 1,000 Buddhas who would appear throughout the existence of mankind. There have already been 4. The teaching of the Buddha is a teaching that should help those who wish to understand the timeless essence of the mind and comprehend oneself as an object, subject and action. Those who can gain this will never lose this feeling and will become bodhisattvas.

Orthodox schools in India.

Orthodox Samkhya. (5th-4th centuries BC)

The founder of Samkhya is Kapilla.

Ontology. This school highlighted two principles of existence, therefore, the teaching was dualistic in nature:

• · Material origin - Prakriti
• · Spirituality - Parusha

Recognition of two principles of existence makes Samkhya dualistic philosophical concept. At the heart of existence are two primary elements - matter and spirit.

Prakriti and Parusha are passive and active principles respectively. When united, these two principles create the world. Parusha is an active principle that has certain knowledge, this knowledge indicates the path of Prakriti. Those. Parusha is an idea, and Prakriti is the material embodiment of this idea. Gradually, Parusha turns from a cosmic man into an impersonal universal principle - Brahman. Brahman gives birth to man or is the primordial man. The moving principles of Prakriti are the gunas. The gunas are the strings, the driving principle of Prakriti. The gunas are responsible for movement, stability, and inertial principles of matter. The ideal and material beginning are equal.

Ethics. Like other schools in India, the main ethical issue was the liberation of a person from suffering, and in this, and not the next life. In order to free yourself from suffering, you need to know your true Self. The True Self is involved in Parusha, it comes from Prausha - active self-awareness. And since Parusha is the world soul and immortal, then the true Self is immortal. Having understood this, a person frees his mind, becomes fearless and active. Therefore, the meaning of human life is the concept of the real unconditioned “I”. This is the path to liberation from suffering proposed in orthodox Samkhya, this is how ethical issues were resolved in this philosophical movement.

Materialistic Samkhya

Ontology. The ontological characteristic of this school is pluralism, or rather spontaneous materialist pluralism. At the basis of existence, they identified 5 primary elements: water, fire, air, earth and ether.

Epistemology: recognized rational and sensualistic ways of knowing.

Ethics. The main difference between the materialistic Sankhya and the orthodox one is the recognition that the soul is mortal. And in order to be freed from suffering, one must realize immortal soul, but rather the mind. This brings this movement together with Buddhism, which also spoke about the need to find spiritual refuge in one’s mind. The mind is an everlasting source of joy.

Vaisheshika (3rd-2nd centuries BC).

The founder of Vaisheshika is Canada. Vaisheshika is one of the variants of the materialistic movement of Samkhya. Vaisesika comes from the word vishesha (specialness), this is because the Vaisesikas believed that to comprehend reality, the main importance is to determine the special differences between substances, atoms, souls, etc.

Ontology. The doctrine of substance.

The primary element of the world, according to the Vaisheshikas, was the material principle - material substance. In total, five bodily substances were isolated - water, earth, air, fire, ether. The ideas of spontaneous materialist pluralism can also be traced here. These primary elements consist of indivisible tiny invisible material corpuscles. Vaisheshikas were distinguished by qualities and properties. Movement is a property, not a quality, since it is transferred from one object to another. They also carried out separate work on philosophical language. They introduced new categories and concepts, systematized knowledge, trying to give structure to knowledge.

Ethics. The main goal, as in other schools, was liberation from suffering. But the Vaisesikas saw the true root of suffering - ignorance, therefore knowledge - is the path to liberation from suffering. The task of man is to know reality. The Vaisesikas believed that this comprehension was associated not only with the accumulation of knowledge, but also with the systematization of knowledge.

Ancient Indian philosophy began to emerge at the beginning of the first millennium BC. At the origins of ancient Indian philosophy are the Vedas - literary mythological works of the Aryan people, who came to the Ganges River valley in the second millennium BC. The first philosophies of India were strongly influenced by the mythological worldview. Subsequent philosophical schools in India can be divided into two directions - astika and nastika, depending on whether the philosophical schools recognized the teachings and ideas of the Vedas. Astika teachings are mainly devoted to ontological issues, while nastika teachings (Buddhism, Charvaka, Jainism) dealt with ethical issues.

philosophy Jainism Buddhism ontological

Glossary for the lecture

• · Arhat - in Buddhism, a being who has achieved liberation (nirvana) from the chain of rebirths (samsara).
• · Buddhism is a religion. Philosopher a doctrine that arose in ancient India in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e. and transformed in the course of its development into one of the three, along with Christianity and Islam, world religions.
• · Vaisheshika is one of the 6 orthodox (recognizing the authority of the Vedas) systems of ancient Indian philosophy. The founder is considered to be Canada (3rd-2nd centuries BC).
• · Varna - caste or class stratum in Ancient India
• · The Vedas are an ancient Indian literary monument created by the Aryan people at the turn of the 2nd-1st millennium BC. and reflecting the foundations of the mythological worldview of his time
• · Guna is the main ontological category, one of the primary elements of being in Samkhya
• · Jainism - Indian religious Philosopher teaching that took shape in the 6th - 5th centuries. BC e. and has become one of the most famous religions in India.
• · Karma - [Sanskrit. Karma action] in Indian religion and philosophy: the “law of retribution”, according to which, in accordance with good and evil deeds, the fate of a living being is predetermined in subsequent reincarnations.
• · Moksha - the last highest level of consciousness - cosmic consciousness.
• · Nirvana is a state of complete peace of mind, the absence of any desires, motives, thoughts - in a word, mental non-existence. According to the teachings of Buddha, life is evil, a person should strive for N-not.
• · Sankhya - (Sanskrit, lit. - number, enumeration, calculation), one of the six ancient Indian. orthodox (Brahmanical) philosophies. schools that recognize the authority of the Vedas. At the same time, S. is based not on the text of the Vedas directly, but on independent experience and reflection. In this sense, S. is united with Nyaya, Vaisheshika and yoga and is opposed to Vedanta and Mimamsa. The name S. (“number”) is apparently explained by the fact that it is constructed as a listing of the elements of the cosmos in their formation from the initial principles to the entire diversity of the world of objects.
• · Samsara - (Sanskrit Sarnsara - passing, flowing) - the main term of ideological texts to denote reincarnation, repeated births, implying that the incorporeal beginning of an individual after the disintegration of one bodily shell connects with another and acquires mental, perceptual and active abilities corresponding to the results of previous existence , as well as “high” or “low” birth in accordance with the action of the “law of karma”.
• Chervaka - Charvaka (Sanskrit) materialistic doctrine ancient and medieval India, a later variety of lokayata, with which it is sometimes generally identified.

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