topic: "European culture XIX–XX centuries » Completed by 1st year student of group SKD-415/1 Pikalova Christina Rvbotu checked by the teacher: Bityukova Lyudmila Grigorievna Voronezh 2016 Romanticism, Realism. IN culture New times 19 century occupies a special place. This century classics, when bourgeois civilization reached its maturity and entered a stage of crisis. At its core culture 19 centuries is based on the same ideological foundations as culture new time. This...

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Abstract: culture of Belarus and Russia of the 19th-20th centuries Abstract: Culture 19 -20 Belarus and Russia century | culture | | | Contents 1. Introduction

2. Material and spiritual

3. School reform 4. Vocational training 5. Scientific research into the history of Belarus, life and culture its population 6. Books and periodicals 7. Art and architecture * Development of Belarusian literature * Formation of a national professional theater, musical life * Fine arts * Architecture 8. Conclusion 9. Literature... 13632 Words | 55 Page GLOBAL culture ARTISTIC CULTURE COURSE CONTENT Course on world artistic on 55 Page GLOBAL | stage of secondary (complete) general education is aimed at familiarizing with the outstanding achievements of art in different

historical eras

V

various countries culture 19 Belarus and Russia . It does not contain a complete listing of all phenomena culture , but through some of the most outstanding monuments of architecture, fine art, literature, music, theater, or the work of one master, it allows to show socio-cultural... 19 Belarus and Russia 4049 Words | culture 17 Page 19 Belarus and Russia Russian culture of the 19th century

Contents Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. 3 1. Russian

........................................................ ........................ 5 1.1. Artistic

first half century ............... 7 1.2. Artistic second half ……….. 11 Conclusion……………………………………………………………… 15 References……………………………………………………… ………………... 16 Introduction By the mid-50s of the nineteenth century. Huge political changes have taken place in Russia... 20 Belarus and Russia 3115 Words | 20 Belarus and Russia . Some of the processes that are essential for the history of art of our century have their origins in the past. century . Part - arises later, in the course of the development of art of the modern era. The main thing is...

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Russian philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries 19 -20 centuries Option 11 Topic: Russian philosophy . Plan: Introduction. 19 -20 centuries 1. Features of Russian philosophy 2. 55 Page Discussions between Westerners and Slavophiles 3. The concept of unity in Russian philosophy | Conclusion. Bibliography. Introduction.

Russian philosophical thought is an organic part

philosophy and

. Russian philosophy addresses the same problems that... century 3198 Words | | 13 Page 19 Belarus and Russia » Russian culture 19th century Belarus and Russia "Gold

Russian

at first

Completed by: Natalya Sergeevna Shcherbinina, student of the BU SPO KHMAO-YUGRA “Ugra Art College” Supervisor: Lyubov Igorevna Koskina 2013 Plan 1. Introduction. culture Features of "Golden" 19 » classic... 20 centuries 2854 Words | culture 12 Page 19 century Musical culture of Russia 19th -20th centuries. culture ABSTRACT Musical | Russia - started Plan: Introduction 1. Song Russia in

2. Russian school of composition 2.1 Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka 2.2 Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky 2.3 “The Mighty Handful” 2.4 Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky 3. Russian musical

early 20th century Conclusion References Introduction Russia in the 19th century. made a huge leap in development

, made an invaluable contribution to centuries world culture 19 . This was predetermined by a number of reasons. Cultural... Abstract: 2934 Words | culture 12 Page

abkbcjabz 19-20 dd

1.1 Origins of Russian philosophy 3 1.2 Features of Russian philosophy XIX-XX

. 6 Chapter 2. Russian cosmism 13 culture 2.1 Russian cosmism. 13 Conclusion. 18 References 19 Belarus and Russia Introduction Russian | , the most important component of which is Russian philosophy, which ultimately determined the originality of Russian philosophy. Russian 19 Belarus and Russia - a unique phenomenon. What is this connected with: 1) Geographically, our Fatherland, throughout... 19 Belarus and Russia 3654 Words | | , the most important component of which is Russian philosophy, which ultimately determined the originality of Russian philosophy. Russian 19 Belarus and Russia 15 Page 19 Belarus and Russia 19th century

Topic 17. Russian

in the first half

Plan 1. Features and main development trends culture 19 Belarus and Russia Russia in the first half features of industrial civilization……………6-8 3. Science and technology……………………………………………………….9-11 4. Political culture …………………………………………………………12-13 5. Morality and religion………………………………………………………..14 -15 6. Architecture and music of Europe 19 Belarus and Russia ………………………………………………………16 1.1.Architecture……………………………………………………………16- 19 1.2.Music………………………………………………………………………………….. 20 -23 List of references……………………………………………………24 ...

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development of art culture in Europe Abstract: Contents: 1.Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3 2. 19 Belarus and Russia Western Europe from the end 55 Page to the first wars........................................................ .......................4 3.Architecture of Western Europe………………………….………….8 4.Painting Western Europe...............................................11 5. Sculpture of Western Europe…………………………………...…...13 6. Dada and surrealism in fine arts

.14 ​​7. Neorealism in fine arts………….…….…16 8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...

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12 Page | Philanthropists and culture in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Belarus and Russia Russian late XIX-early XX | » Completed by: 1st year student of the Faculty of Economics Group – 4102 Full name: 19 Belarus and Russia Kryuchkova Irina Vladimirovna Checked by: D.N.N.Professor Erlikh V.A. Novosibirsk 2016 Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Introduction PAGEREF _Toc465624929 \h 31Charity and patronage of Russian entrepreneurs PAGEREF _Toc465624930 \h 52The most prominent philanthropists of the late XIX - early XX centuries. PAGEREF _Toc465624931 \h 83Development

Russia of the end

PAGEREF...

3437 Words | 19 14 Page Russian philosophy of the 19th century RUSSIAN PHILOSOPHY | CENTURIES

Philosophy is not only the product of the activity of pure reason, not only the result of the research of a narrow circle

specialists. It is an expression of the spiritual experience of a nation, its intellectual potential, embodied in the diversity of creations

 Abstract: . To understand the features of Russian philosophy, you need to look into the history of the development of philosophical thought in Russia. This work helps to consider the main issues of the period of development of Russian philosophy. It is divided into four sections:... Belarus and Russia 7220 Words | Belarus and Russia 29 Page Culture of the 2nd half of the 19th century Belarus and Russia second half of the 19th century Belarus and Russia Plan Introduction 2 Education in the second half of the 19th century Belarus and Russia 4 Development of science in culture second half of the 19th century 9 Printing and museum work in the 2nd half of the 19th century 18 Painting and architecture of the second half of the 19th century 22 Music 28 Theater 33 Conclusion 37 References 39 Introduction The term “ means everything that is created physically and mentally...

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Theory of culture | politics and CULTUROLOGY TEXT OF LECTURES N.O. Voskresenskaya Contents Lecture 1. Introduction to the discipline. Subject of cultural studies. Cultural concepts. World culture . Abstract: and national religions Lecture 2. Primitive civilizations of Antiquity Lecture 3. culture World civilizations of Antiquity Lecture 3. culture in the Middle Ages Lecture 4. Subject of cultural studies. Cultural concepts. in the era of New and Contemporary times Lecture 1. Introduction to the discipline. Subject of cultural studies. Cultural concepts.

and national...

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70 Page 19 Belarus and Russia 2. Russian philosophy of the 19th century during Philosophical teachings Westerners and Slavophiles. | 3. Historiosophy P.Ya. Chaadaeva. Man as a phenomenon

public life

4. The essence of the idea of ​​God-manhood Conclusion List of references Introduction Philosophy is not only a product of the activity of pure reason, not only the result of the research of a narrow circle of specialists. It is an expression of the spiritual experience of a nation, its intellectual potential, embodied in the diversity of creations

. To... century 4389 Words | 18 Page 8 20 D0 BA D0 BB D0 B0 D1 81 D1 81 20 D0 BA D0 BE D1 80 D1 80 D0 B5 D0 BA D1 86 D0 B8 D0 BE D0 BD D0 BD D1 8B D0 B9 202012 1 Belarus and Russia Russia in the 19th century Belarus and Russia (36 hours), as well as the “Social Studies” module, designed for 10 hours. This program on the history of Russia for grade 8

includes a mandatory minimum of historical education content in primary school. Compiled on the basis of an approximate program developed taking into account the federal component of the state standard of basic general education. Course "History"

Russia XIX

"is the logical conclusion of the course "History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 18th century "and covers... 55 Page GLOBAL | 2838 Words |

12 Page

World Art

| |“____”___________ 2013 |“____”_____________ 2013 | Educational and methodological complex of the discipline “History” » Specialty: 031001.65 “Philology” Specialization: “Russian language and literature” Graduate qualification (degree): specialist Year of study: 5 Form of study: full-time Kaliningrad 2013 Approval sheet Compiled by:... 16479 Words | 66 Page Kazakh people. The Orkhon-Yenisei written monuments showed that among the Turkic tribes the art of words was distinguished by poetic power, depth of thought and richness of content. The folklore heritage of Turkic literature is represented by legends, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, heroic...

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 Abstract: , the most important component of which is Russian philosophy, which ultimately determined the originality of Russian philosophy. Russian 19 Belarus and Russia Abstract: , the most important component of which is Russian philosophy, which ultimately determined the originality of Russian philosophy. Russian 19 Belarus and Russia Russian culture in the first half of the 19th century - a significant stage in the development of spiritual and moral values Russian society. It's amazing how big it has become creative process<<золотого Belarus and Russia , all the depth of its content and richness of forms. Over half a century, the cultural community has risen to a new level: multifaceted, polyphonic, unique. Origins of development | 2.1 Russian cosmism. 13 Conclusion. 18 References 19 Belarus and Russia >> Development of Russian

was due to a high degree...

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4 Page Culture of the 20th-21st centuries State autonomous Abstract: educational institution centuries Secondary vocational education of the Republic of Belarus Birsk Medical and Pharmaceutical College. Abstract: XX-XXI

. Completed: 111 Pharm. B group Kugubaeva T.A. Checked by: history teacher Pozolotin I.V. Birsk 2013 Contents. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..3

first half of the 20th century…………………………………………….4 Main trends in the development of art and literature of the first half of the 20th century…………………………………………… ………………….4 New artistic...

 6048 Words | 25 Page Belarus and Russia silver Age century general characteristics Russian poetry "Silver" Belarus and Russia " "Silver "Russian poetry - this name has become stable for designations of Russian poetry of the late XIX - early XX Belarus and Russia . It was given by analogy with gold Belarus and Russia century

- so called the beginning of the 19th century

, Pushkin's time. About Russian poetry of “silver”

“There is an extensive literature - both domestic and foreign researchers have written a lot about it, incl. such prominent scientists as V. M. Zhirmunsky, V. Orlov, L. K. Dolgopolov continue... century 3198 Words | | 4814 Words | 20 Page | Golden Age in Russian culture | Gold | . culture 3. Spirituality of Russian literature. | 4. Conclusion.

5. List of references.

Introduction to History

Russia XIX century occupies a special place. This is a time of unprecedented rise of Russian culture , a time when Russia produced geniuses in all areas of the spiritual – in literature, painting, music, science, philosophy, etc. Russia XIX century made a huge contribution to the treasury of universal human inconsistency and heterogeneity. At almost all stages of its formation and development, such features and configurations took shape that did not make it possible to unambiguously interpret its features and dynamic tendencies: a clear inclination towards harmony and order was every now and then overshadowed by ugly distortions and the overlapping of mutually exclusive meanings or tendencies, which led...

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Development of culture | Development 19 in Russia at the end 20 Belarus and Russia beginning (download abstract in archive) File 19 » classic... 20 centuries 1 Russian collection of abstracts (c) 1996. This work is an integral part of the universal knowledge base created by the Russian Student Server - http://www.students.ru. Contents 1. Introduction 2. Literature 3. Theater 4. Cinema 5. Russian art of the end

A) Sculpture B) Architecture 6. music 7. conclusion 8. literature 9. drawings...

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46 Page Abstract. Painting of Russia in the 19th century. Belarus and Russia 1.Russian painting in early XIX 20 ..…………………………………………...3 1.1Romanticism in fine arts…………………………………….7 1.2.Landscape in culture the work of S. Shchedrin, I. Aivazovsky..…………………………12 1.3. The work of K. P. Bryullov, A. Ivanov……………………………………..16 1.4.Everyday genre in the works of P.A Fedotov……………………………….

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………22 References ……………………………………………………………… ……………………….23 Introduction Russian art

the origins of which began with classicism... 19 4131 Words | 20 Belarus and Russia 17 Page second half Plan: Introduction 1. Song -beginning 19 » Novosibirsk 2013 20 centuries Introduction. Ermak's campaign in Siberia was a continuation of the development of new lands. Following him, peasants, industrialists, farmers, and service people moved to Siberia. In the fight against harsh nature, they conquered land from the taiga, founded settlements and laid their

. Article by E.V. Degaltseva shows the life, customs and cultural traditions of the population of Siberia in the middle

- beginning

. So hurt... centuries 1897 Words | culture 8 Page Russian philosophy of the 19th-20th centuries culture XIX-XX Belarus and Russia Russian Plan: Introduction 1. Song - a unique phenomenon. What is this connected with: 1) Geographically, our Fatherland, throughout | of its existence, was at the crossroads of Western and Eastern civilization. 2) Ours

developed later than most Asian and European civilizations and was in constant contact with them, but never stooped to “barely” copying them, and since the 19th century

itself began to have a serious influence on

other peoples. 3) Formation of our Abstract: happened... « culture " and "civilization" in history philosophical analysis | . culture . Abstract: 3. Sciences | as a subject of interdisciplinary research.

4. “West” and “East” as a problem of European thought.

5. Content and mechanism of the communicative function

 Abstract: . Language as a means of communication. Belarus and Russia 6. Cultural norms in society. The problem of compliance and... 22 Music 28 Theater 33 Conclusion 37 References 39 Introduction The term “ 934 Words | 4 Page

19th century culture

XIX

is 19 existing bourgeois relations. By the end of the 18th century. capitalism as a system fully formed. It covered all sectors of material production, which led to corresponding transformations in the non-productive sphere (politics, science, philosophy, art, education, everyday life, social consciousness). If we connect creativity with the socio-political struggle of that time, it is clear that the desire of artists to create appropriate themes and images is... centuries 1406 Words |

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Russian philosophy 19-20 centuries. Brief summary of the module

TERESHKO M.N. Russian philosophy civilizations of Antiquity Lecture 3. culture -20c. BRIEF ABSTRACT OF THE MODULE Every philosophy bears the stamp of national-cultural originality. From this point of view, national types of philosophy are distinguished. culture . Language as a means of communication. Belarus and Russia The period in the development of Russian philosophy, which begins from the second quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, deserves special consideration. second half . This is both the most unique and, at the same time, the most connected with Western European form of philosophy. | In the first paragraph of the lecture - “Westernism and Slavophilism... century 3412 Words |

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Russian musical culture of the 19th century and its global significance

Economics and Service Department of Tourism and Hospitality COURSE WORK in the discipline “ | And 20 art" on the topic: Russian music Belarus and Russia and her 20 art" on the topic: Russian music Belarus and Russia value fulfilled by: student gr. SD-21 Mikhailova I.V. checked by: Candidate of Historical Sciences, Associate Professor T.P. Kotova Ufa 2010 Contents Introduction Historical background Development of song

Russia in the 19th century

Russian school of composition · Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka · Alexander Sergeevich Dargomyzhsky · “Mighty...

5527 Words | Belarus and Russia Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..…..2 1.1Romanticism in the visual arts art………………………….….3 1.2.Landscape in the works of S.Shchedrin, I.Aivazovsky…………………..6 1.3.Creativity of K.P. Bryullov, A.Ivanov…… …………………………..9 1.4.Everyday genre in the works of P.A Fedotov……………………..11 Conclusion……………………………………………………… …………………………13 Literature……………………………………………………………….14 Appendices. culture Introduction.

Russian artistic

the origins of which began with classicism, which acquired...

3143 Words | culture 13 Page century » Everyday culture of 19th century Europe Belarus and Russia Bauman Kaluga branch Abstract on cultural studies on the topic: “Everyday

Europe in the 19th century

Completed by: Trubka R.A., student gr. ITD.B-12. Checked by: Zhukova E.N., Ph.D., Associate Professor Kaluga, 2011. In the 19th century, the life of the inhabitants of Europe began to change very quickly. At the beginning of the past

Europeans looked back on the times of a hundred years ago as completely different, endlessly... 5840 Words | 20 Belarus and Russia 24 Page

Main directions of philosophy of the 20th century

Ministry of Railways of the Russian Federation SAMARA STATE ACADEMY OF COMMUNICATIONS Department of Philosophy and History of Sciences Control work No. 1 on the course “Philosophy” Topic: “Main directions of philosophy century » Completed by: Smirnov S.V.

Code: 2005-ET 6285 ...

subject: "Cultural Studies"

World k

culture XX

A

1. Characteristics of the era

2. Avant-garde

4. The impact of technological progress on society

5. Spiritual life of a person in the twentieth century

Code: 2005-ET 6285 ...

6. Modernism and postmodernism

In fact, the 20th century. began with the realization that “all the gods died, man remained” alone with his power and his still imperfection. On the one hand, the loss of the wise manager of all earthly life and the great Artist, who is God, caused unprecedented optimism and creative energy, on the other hand, it frightened a person with the emptiness that opened up and the unprecedented responsibility that he felt. Hence optimism and pessimism, hope and despair... Everything is extremely aggravated and contradictory, antagonistic and rapid. Social time in the 20th century. becomes extremely dense and eventful, which a person often does not even have time to comprehend and experience.

The change in the picture of the world was also associated with the discovery of the theory of relativity in physics. This has largely led to the relativism of concepts and criteria of values ​​in other areas of knowledge and human life, including art and its canons. The objectivity of the laws of human society, traditional foundations and the entire way of life on which humanity has relied over the past centuries has begun to change radically. A revolution in minds produced a revolution in hearts, and then in society itself.

Doubt breaks integrity human existence. The development of industry, the growth of cities, and the rapid development of technology have led to the fact that man has lost contact with nature, has not found harmony with society, but has also been unable to find peace and tranquility within himself throughout the entire century. Freedom, which he proclaimed as his idol, did not make him happy. From the standpoint of logical rationalism and abstract humanism, criticism of truly spiritual traditions, which could not be replaced by any fashionable theories of the new post-industrial society, was carried out and continues to be carried out.

Impressionism and naturalism of the late 19th century. moved from “absolutely new art” to the 20th century. into the “classical” category. Avant-garde art with its numerous schools of the First World War began to lay claim to absolute novelty. Expressionists(expressionism means “expression”) they emphasize that they have nothing in common with the impressionists, trying to express their attitude to what is happening through the means of their art. Futurists they rebuild the world, combining its primary elements at their own discretion, “as they please,” freeing themselves from the burden of logic and reason.

Sets and solves the problems of modern times in its own way Russian avant-garde. Thanks to the paintings of K. Malevich and V. Kandinsky Suprematism and abstractionism became a noticeable phenomenon not only of Russian, but also of world artistic culture, opening a new stage in its development. With the help of a new artistic language, Russian artists managed to create a different, hitherto unprecedented new artistic reality, the perception of which required certain preparation and knowledge of its “laws.”

The role of theoreticians of the new art was taken on by the artists themselves. Thus, in his work “On the Spiritual in Art” V. Kandinsky writes about the peculiarities of the language of abstract art: they can use a circle, a square and a triangle as means. “Every work of art is a child of its time, often it is the mother of our feelings. Thus, each cultural period creates its own art, which cannot be repeated.”

Refusal of the mimetic (i.e., the imitation of art by nature, as the ancients did), the desire to construct a completely new “spiritual reality”, which, in turn, would help rebuild social world all this attracted artists of the early 20th century. Spirituality itself increasingly took on certain material configurations. So, for example, in V. Kandinsky’s view, even spiritual life itself looked like “a large pointed triangle, divided into unequal parts.” In this case, the sharpest and smallest part of the triangle is directed upward, and at its very top there is only one person. On the one hand, he is joyful, on the other, he is sad, because even those who approach him do not understand him. This is how Beethoven was, according to V. Kandinsky, this is how other geniuses in art were. “When religion, science and morality are shaken (the latter strong hand Nietzsche) and external foundations threaten to fall, man turns his gaze from the external to himself,” this is how V. Kandinsky accurately characterizes the time of which he is a contemporary (

However, the internal, deep foundations of creativity are presented to the author of the lines by mystical images, and they are poorly understood and expressed through words, in the visual arts with the help of a point, line, color or in music. Verbal creativity (literature, poetry) is just as susceptible to destruction as a holistic image - the Face in painting. All these aesthetic transformations are evidence of the processes taking place in the 20th century. both with the person and with the society in which he lives.

Reproaches against modernist artists for allegedly “not knowing how to draw” often turned out to be unfair. It is known that many of the representatives of the domestic and foreign avant-garde and modernism in their early works imitated the masters of classical painting - Rembrandt, D. Velazquez, El Greco and others, having adopted their creative style, but they decided not to stop there. These artists include, for example, K. Malevich and P. Picasso, who also managed to reflect in their work the “spirit” of their time and, above all, the destruction of the integrity of the world and man, as well as experiments in the field of new possibilities of the language of fine art.

Appearance in the 20th century. myths about the “death of art” testified to the end of the classical age of culture, including art, the nature of which had noticeably transformed. Artists found themselves faced with the need to solve new problems posed not only by the peculiarities of the new artistic practice, but also by a significantly changed social reality, which was largely influenced by the Russian Revolution.

subject: "Cultural Studies"

However, for a long time, there was a misunderstanding in society of the new art, the language of which had noticeably changed in comparison with the classical one, which considered antiquity and the Renaissance as a role model. Avant-garde, like the art of modernism in general, it no longer recognized the classical canons, freeing itself from their dependence and proclaiming complete freedom of creativity. New art did not strive to reflect reality and man, it created new reality, designing it at your own discretion. The artist is increasingly interested not in the external world, but in the inner world of his own experiences. The purpose of art becomes self-realization artist, no matter in what form it appears. The attention of viewers begins to be attracted not only by the result of the artist’s work - a work of art, but also by the creative process of its creation from concept to implementation. The holy of holies was revealed - the secret of creativity, the desire to comprehend which with the help of logic and reason is not always possible. Rationalism is increasingly beginning to give way to irrationalism, which gives preference to feelings and intuition over reason in comprehending the truth.

3. Characteristic features of 20th century art

Irrationality becomes one of the characteristic features of 20th century art. It is nourished by achievements in the field of philosophy of Freudianism and existentialism, whose influence becomes very noticeable. Artists themselves are increasingly turning to philosophy to explain the inexplicable, to understand the incomprehensible, using it to create manifestos of new artistic movements. Philosophy was close to art even before. It began with the aphorisms of Confucius, the ancient poems of Parmenides and Lucretius, the dialogues of Plato, the letters of Epicurus and Seneca. The organic connection between philosophy and art was not interrupted in subsequent centuries. Suffice it to recall Augustine, Dante, Voltaire, Goethe, as well as F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy, F. Nietzsche, N. Berdyaev, V. Rozanov and others, who expressed their ideas not by constructing abstract theories, but by means of art vividly and figuratively.

One of the heirs to this tradition was the French existentialism: its authors were at the same time famous writers, playwrights and publicists - J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus, F. Kafka and others. Camus once remarked: “If you want to be a philosopher, write novels.” It was thanks to the novels and plays of the existentialists that their ideas became widespread among the reading public, entering the mass (“pantragic”) consciousness of the 20th century. The fashion for existentialism led to the emergence in Europe of “existentialist cafes” with a mandatory black ceiling to make it easier for visitors to focus on their inner experiences of melancholy, anxiety and the absurdity of the meaninglessness of existence. All this caused protest among the existentialists themselves, since the fascination with such external effects, according to A. Camus, testified to the intellectual squalor of the public.

If you try to take in your mind’s eye the entire European culture of the 19th and 20th centuries in the main aspects of its development, then the semantic core of this development will be the constant struggle for human freedom, for the inalienability of his rights as an individual. In the system of cultural ideas of previous eras, the personality was one way or another rooted in a certain general order - social, moral, human, divine; starting from the 19th century, she (that is, the individual) begins to feel insecure in front of a society hostile to her.
The turn of the 18th - 19th centuries is a turning point in the history of European culture, which is usually called romantic. In the 1810-1820s, a powerful romantic movement emerged in literature (E. T. A. Hoffmann. G. Heine in Germany, D. G. Byron, P. B. Shelley, D. Keats, W. Scott in England, A. Lamartine, A. de Vigny, V. Hugo in France, etc.).
The ideas of the Enlightenment gave rise to the idea that the world order is based on the idea human mind. Having ceased to rely on God, man became an independent participant historical process, while receiving absolute freedom and independence in everything.
The temptation of freedom came from France, which overthrew the feudal absolutist system in 1789 and proclaimed an offensive new era, the era of “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.” But very soon these illusions turned into collapse.
The romantics came to the bitter realization that the expansion of the range of personal freedom gained during bourgeois revolutions is not an absolute good, but a very, very relative one. The bourgeois plebeian element, which received freedom, disposed of things not in accordance with the principles of reason and morality, but with the interests of the stomach and the purse. It is interesting that the “fruits of enlightenment” - the expansion of opportunities for mass production of artistic products, the increase in their accessibility to the general public - carry with them the danger of subordinating art to the laws of the market. And how can one not recall Goethe’s words that “the art that laid the floors of the ancients, that built the vaults of heaven Christian churches, is now crushed and spent on snuff boxes and bracelets.” The Great French Revolution became a real “apocalypse of history” for European culture (N. Berdyaev).
The philosophical basis for romanticism is idealism, the essence of which is the spiritual sphere of human life, the search for the ideal beginning of existence. A parallel should be drawn with the Middle Ages, where the supersensible principle occupied a large place. Romanticism is characterized by religious quests, which acquire an aesthetic coloring. A romantic seeks God, but finds Beauty, and vice versa. But what distinguishes romanticism from the Middle Ages is, first of all, the cult of freedom, the cult of individuality. The religious feeling of the romantics is personal in nature, therefore a person in this period of historical development no longer needs the church, since he is already born with this feeling of “secret”.
The slogan of the romantics can rightfully be considered the words from the treatise “Speech on the Dignity of Man” by Pico della Mirandola: “I made you neither earthly nor heavenly, I put you at the center of the world, so that you, a free and brave master, choose for yourself the image that "as you wish." This life-creative pathos was actualized by the romantics. For them, creativity, the creative freedom of the Renaissance man will become main value, and artists and creators will become cultural heroes of the era.
For the romantic consciousness, art turns out to be valuable: only it is capable of transforming the world. Without accepting reality as it is, romantics create their own myth. Romantics replace things with symbols. Their world is a system of symbols. So a rose is no longer a flower, but a symbol of Aphrodite.
Romantic consciousness values ​​above all else the uniqueness and exclusivity of the human personality. During this period, portraiture, seeking to convey a person’s thoughts and feelings, came to the fore.
The romantic ideal is in conflict with everything finite. For a romantic, it is not the duration of life that is relevant, but the intensity of its experiences. In the mind of a romantic, there is a constant conflict between nature and civilization. Nature is, first of all, the kingdom of freedom. That is why the French landscape painters Delacroix, Gericault, Ingres and others are so fond of images of stormy, rebellious nature.
The second leading artistic system in the art of the 19th century was realism (critical realism). The most significant achievements of realism are in literature, primarily in prose (F. Stendhal, O. Balzac, P. Merimee in France, Charles Dickens, W. M. Thackeray in England), in painting (primarily French artists O. Daumier , G. Courbet).
It is interesting that romanticism begins with the formation of a theory, the creation of a term to define the emerging direction, realism, on the contrary, with artistic creativity. Thus, Stendhal considered himself a romantic, Balzac attributed his work to the eclectic movement, etc. The term realism appeared when the literary movement itself had already been defined in world culture. This term appeared in 1856-1857, when in France Chanfleury published a collection of articles entitled “Realism”, and his colleague L. E. E. Duranty, together with the critic A. Asseza, published six issues of the magazine under the same name. At the same time, George Sand published the article “Realism” (1857), in which the contrast between the positions of romantics and realists was clearly outlined.
The achievements of science in the 19th century played a huge role in the development of the new artistic method, which emphasizes the cultural relationships between various spheres of the spiritual life of Europeans. The main task of science in the 19th century was to guess the objective course human history. The philosophy of positivism, especially influential in the middle of the century, by Auguste Comte and his followers, contained the idea that true knowledge is the cumulative result of special sciences that do not need general philosophy. The picture of the world, thus, ceases to be universal, that is, positivism does not pretend to have a general picture of the world.
If the romantics sought to show the dignity and selfhood of a person, elevated above the inert philistine environment and overshadowed by genius, then the realism that replaced romanticism set as its task to find a simple, ordinary person in the corrupted crowd. In the manifesto of realistic art - Preface to the “Human Comedy” (1841) - O. de Balzac wrote: “ Creature- this is the basis that receives its external form, or, more precisely, features its form in the environment where it is assigned to develop. Animal species are defined by these differences. The propagation and defense of this system... will be the eternal merit of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire... Imbued with this system, even before the emergence of the controversy that it aroused, I realized that in this respect society is like nature. Doesn't society create from man, according to the environment in which he acts, as many diverse species as there are in the animal world? The difference between a soldier, a worker, an official, a lawyer, a loafer, a scientist, a statesman, a merchant, a sailor, a poet, a poor man, a priest is as significant, although somewhat more difficult to grasp, as that which distinguishes a wolf, a lion, an ass, a raven from each other , shark, seal, sheep, etc. Therefore, there are and will always exist species in human society, just as they exist in the animal kingdom.”
The society of that time was shocked that instead of romantic genius personalities, ordinary traders of goods, talent, etc. suddenly poured into literature in a whole stream. For realists, denunciations and revelations are not an end in themselves, but an opportunity to reveal and remove alien layers that distort the true humanity appearance The predecessors of the realists - the romantics - were able to grasp the general law of the opening era of mass education, accumulation and consumption: the law of environmental pressure on the individual, the threat of universal standardization. In accordance with this law, their extraordinary personality is opposed to the hostile mass, as a result of which this very personality finds itself elevated above the crowd in a vain attempt to find refuge in the sublime realms of the spirit. Realists, on the other hand, place the individual in the very midst of the environment and subject it to comprehensive consideration and analysis. Obsessed with analysis, they examine the interaction of the individual with the environment in great detail. If romantics embody the result, then realists recreate the process; they are interested in how a personality changes, obeying a standard, and how it manages to preserve itself in spite of it.
Realism, like the realists themselves, was often reproached for “denigrating”, for focusing on the prosaically unchanging aspects of existence, for the fact that, opening one ulcer after another, they showed the existing disease of the century, but did not cure it. Just as romantic abstraction was disappointing in its time, so realistic analyticity is now disappointing.
Romanticism is given another try. The artistic personality again directs his gaze to the coming centuries. A stormy surge of neo-romantic movements ends the nineteenth century and opens the twentieth century. Symbolism, surrealism, expressionism, cubism and subsequent ones, which constitute the essence of the concept of “modernism,” are direct descendants of romanticism.
As a cultural era, the 20th century begins with the outbreak of the First World War. On August 1, 1914, everything in the world changed dramatically: all values former world were destroyed overnight, human consciousness was completely turned upside down. Man has long been familiar with the infinity of space, but earlier he thought of it as more homogeneous, but now he has received ideas about “black holes”, about the so-called “fourth change”. All this led to the fact that in the 19th century the feeling of space as a kind of shelter was forever put to an end. The so-called “post-Christian era” has arrived, i.e. a period when Christian values ​​finally ceased to be a guide to action. The line between good and evil has blurred, and these categories have become interchangeable. The words of Friedrich Nietzsche, spoken in the 19th century: “God is dead!”, that is, the belief in absolute values, in higher authorities, died, acquired true reality in the 20th century.
The death of God marked the death of the original truth. Human consciousness has turned out to be subordinated to the idea of ​​the relativity of all things; now any truth is doubtful, since it does not interface with the absolute truth, the personification of which was once God. Therefore, the 20th century is often called the era of relativism, where good is evil, the beautiful suddenly becomes ugly, and vice versa. The so-called “age of Aquarius” has arrived. Aquarius becomes a symbol of the emergence of the subconscious from the power of thinking (conscious processes); it is a symbol of instinctive desires and aspirations.
This ability of a person of the 20th century is characterized by “Narcissus syndrome” (this definition was given by the French philosopher Louis Laval). For a person of such consciousness, the other ceases to be a subject, the entire world around him is considered as an object of claims, the only reality is himself. And he, striving for self-knowledge, looks only in the mirror of his own desires and aspirations. As a result, a false idea of ​​oneself is born, since no one is able to understand himself without the other. The narcissistic character of the 20th century was most evident in relation to the natural world: global ecological problems- This is a consequence of this syndrome.
Another distinctive feature culture of the 20th century, Ortega y Gasset in his treatise “The Revolt of the Masses” (1930) called its mass character. Culture is oriented toward mediocrity, because vulgarity has no individual content, while high culture is always personal and aristocratic.
The entire 20th century passed under the sign of the search for form and language. This search was expressed by avant-garde art. The avant-garde claimed a universal remaking of people's consciousness, without providing knowledge, without creating ready-made formulas. The term “avant-garde” was transferred from the sphere of politics to the sphere of artistic criticism, and with it is associated a feeling of struggle for everything new, unconventional.
The characteristic and general features of the avant-garde, according to V. Bychkov, include: 1) its experimental nature; 2) destructive pathos regarding traditional art and traditional values; 3) a sharp protest against everything that seemed to their creators and participants to be conservative, philistine, “bourgeois”, “academic”; 4) in the visual arts and literature - a demonstrative rejection of the “direct” (realistic-naturalistic) image of visible reality that was established in the 19th century; 5) an unbridled desire to create something fundamentally new (primarily in forms, techniques and means of artistic expression); 6) tendencies towards a synthesis of individual arts.
The significance of the avant-garde for the entire 20th century is very significant. Having shown the relativity of forms, means, methods and types of artistic and aesthetic consciousness, the avant-garde brought to its logical conclusion all the main types of new European arts, thereby demonstrating that they have outlived their usefulness as relevant cultural phenomena capable of expressing the spirit of the time. At the same time, the avant-garde artist could use the achievements of technology, science, mythology, and cultural traditions. Avant-garde art contributed to the emergence of new (technical) arts (photography, cinema, television, electronic music, etc.).
In the 20th century, the category of beauty is replaced by the category of expressiveness. Art as an event of the spirit turns into a performance (that is, a performance, a show). If earlier art was aimed at the spiritual worker, now it has become addressed to the person who is looking for entertainment. A striking sign of art at the end of the 20th century was postmodernism as a phenomenon of the post-Christian era.
Postmodernism does not affirm anything, since there is no absolute truth. The art of postmodernism is fragmentary art, because a fragment is built from different artistic images, different styles. This leads to the fact that the true creator (demiurge) is not the author of the text, but such a feature modern culture, as intertextuality.

Review questions

1 . How did the ideas of the Enlightenment influence the cultural life of Europe?
2. What is the romantic ideal? What are the values ​​of romanticism?
3. Why is European realism called critical?
4. How did Friedrich Nietzsche’s statement that God is dead influence the further development of European culture?
5. What is the significance of avant-garde art for the artistic picture of the world of Europe?

Abstract topics

1. Poetic creativity of ancient Greek lyricists.
2. The ideal of man in the works of Phidias, Myron, Polykleitos (optional).
3. History of women's and men's costumes in Ancient Greece.
4. Features ancient culture Ancient Rome.
5. Stylistic originality of ancient Roman architecture, painting, sculpture.
6. Game carnival culture late Middle Ages.
7. Reflection of the essence human existence in the works of Rabelais, Petrarch, Boccaccio.
8. Poetry of Michelangelo.
9. Titans of the Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, Titian (optional)
10.Features of the development of the culture of the Northern Renaissance
11. Baroque: system of artistic vision and style.
12. Classicism as a reflection of the principle of state and civil discipline.
13. Rococo aesthetics in the context of the Enlightenment
14. Confrontation between romanticism and realism.
15. Image of the twentieth century.
16. The birth of cinema as a result of the search for avant-garde art.

Bibliography

1. Anthology of philosophy of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 2000.
2. Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. - M., 2001.
3. Bonnard A. Greek civilization: in 2 volumes - M., 1992.
4. Botkin L. M. Italian Renaissance in search of individuality. - M., 1989.
5. Weber A. Favorites: the crisis of European culture. - St. Petersburg, 1999.
6. Welflin G. Basic concepts of art history. The problem of style evolution in new art. - St. Petersburg, 1994.
7. Vlasov V. G. Styles in art. Dictionary: in 2 volumes. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
8. Vlasov V. G. Styles in art. Dictionary: in 2 volumes. - St. Petersburg, 1998.
9. Gurevich A. Ya. Categories of medieval culture. - M., 1988.
10. Gurevich A. Ya. Culture and society medieval Europe through the eyes of contemporaries. - M., 1989.
11. Danilova E. I. The Art of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1984.
12. Dmitrieva N. A. Short story arts - M., 1987.
13. History of foreign literature of the 19th century: in 2 hours / Rep. ed. N. P. Michalskaya. - M., 1991.
14. Kosikov G.K. Middle Ages and Renaissance. Theoretical problems // Foreign literature of the second millennium. - M., 2001.
15. Personality - idea - text in the culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - Ivanovo, 2001.
16. Losev A. F. Ancient mythology in its historical development. - M., 1992.
17. Losev A.F. Homer. - M., 1960.
18. Losev A. F. History antique aesthetics. - M., 1992.
19. Losev A. F. Aesthetics of the Renaissance. - M., 1998.
20. Lukshin I. P. Unfulfilled claims. - M., 1982.
21. Modernism: analysis and criticism of the main trends. - M., 1986.
22. Morozov A. A. From the history of some emblems in the Renaissance and Baroque // Myth. Folklore. Literature. - L., 1987.
23. Turchin V. S. Through the labyrinths of the avant-garde. - M., 1993.
24. Huizinga J. Autumn of the Middle Ages. - M., 1988.

The culture of the 19th century occupies a special place in the history of Western Europe. And this is due to a change in the very existence of European civilization. Three new factors determined the development of Europe starting from the 19th century: experimental science, industrialization and processes of democratization.

For the first time in history, science has become a determining factor in social and economic development. It was from the 19th century that the characteristic tendency for Western Europe began to identify scientific and economic progress with cultural progress.

The 19th century proposed a new social ideal: society is associated with a factory, headed by scientists. The mechanization of production led to industrial civilization, which was characterized by mass production, the process of urbanization, and the pursuit of technical innovations. Incarnation new era became a Machine. Contemporaries called the 19th century “the age of railroads,” “the age of steam,” “the age of steel,” and “the age of electricity.” And indeed, the inventions of this century literally “collapsed” on man like an avalanche: a steam locomotive, a steamship, a car, a telephone, a telegraph, a tram, a subway, steam heating, water supply and sewerage, gas and electric lighting. According to the research of P. Sorokin, in the 19th century. 8,527 discoveries and inventions were made - more than in all previous history. All this changed the familiar world of Europeans.

But the changes affected not only everyday human life. Scientific discoveries changed the familiar picture of the world before our eyes: the Newtonian world order, so understandable, obvious, so easily proven by experience, turned out to be only the outer shell of this world. Scientific discoveries and hypotheses testified to the depth and complexity of the world order, and most importantly, to the “non-obviousness” of scientific truth. D. Mendeleev created the periodic table, M. Faraday and J. Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory, P. Curie and A. A. Becquerel - the theory of radioactivity, E. Rutherford and N. Bohr studied the structure of the atom; G. Mendel and T. Morgan created the theory of genetics, L. Pasteur and R. Koch laid the foundations of bacteriology. And the real “blow” for the public was the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin and the theory of relativity of A. Einstein. These discoveries could no longer be treated as exclusively scientific: they offered a new worldview and changed the usual picture of the world.

In fact, man finds himself at the center of a contradiction: the visible world and the world that science talks about are not the same thing. One of the main features of the new era was the formation of a relativistic type of thinking.

Another consequence of " scientific revolution“In the 19th century, a peculiar feeling of man became that new knowledge and discoveries do not make the world more understandable, and certainly do not clarify the meaning of human life.

Parallel to this scientific paradox, the process of “disenchantment of the world” took place - the process of human loss religious beliefs. After Charles Darwin’s discovery, which explained the origin of man not from God, but from primates, the philosophical thought of the era challenged society and proved that God himself was generated by man, his fear and weakness (S. Freud).

The 19th century began to study and criticize the Bible and the church, and K. Marx called religion “the sigh of an oppressed creature.” Gradually, bourgeois society began to perceive religion as a symbol of civilization, a condition for its stability, and replaced faith with the observance of rituals. Secular society separated church and state, introduced civil registration of births and marriages, banned Jesuit schools...

Religious has been replaced new system values: benefit, prosperity, comfort, loyalty, rationality, safety. All this became the basis of bourgeois morality, to which was added the principle of equality of all before the law and faith in technological progress.

The characteristic features of the worldview of the new era can also be called:

Social optimism associated with the success of science and technology;

Positivism, which originates in the philosophy of O. Comte, and has become the universal principle of the new scientific worldview, rejecting everything unknown, mysterious and supersensible;

Cosmopolitanism, because in the 19th century European culture ceased to be closed (in many countries of the world a parliamentary system was established, political parties were created, and the United States became an equal partner and even a competitor); Cosmopolitanism manifested itself especially clearly at the end of the 19th century and was expressed in a passion for the cultures of various regions and countries (Africa, the East, Russia, etc.), as well as in the tradition of holding international exhibitions;

Politicization, which became an integral feature of man in the 19th, and even more so in the 20th centuries; everyone now felt involved in the events taking place, which was facilitated by journalism, the birth of radio and other media.

The understanding of nature also became new: utilitarianism defined the attitude towards nature as a source of energy, natural resources and a grandiose workshop. “Nature is not a temple, but a workshop,” these words of Turgenev’s character for a long time determined the attitude of the European to the world around him.

As a result of such significant shifts in worldview, the European found himself in a tragic situation of loneliness and misunderstanding of himself: he is now not the image and likeness of God, not the creator and not “the measure of all things,” but “a set of chemical elements,” “an animal closely related with a monkey,” a weak-willed hostage of the subconscious or “homo faber” (“producing man”). The essence of man, his soul, purpose and meaning of existence - these questions remained unresolved. For the first time in European culture, technological progress outstripped the humanitarian understanding of human existence, and this became the biggest problem of the culture of the 19th-20th centuries (and sometimes a threat to the very existence of man, as evidenced by World War I).

It was the unresolved “eternal” questions of existence that gave rise to such “polyphony” in philosophy and art at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. Only one quality unites such different ideas of the new era as critical realism and immoralism, decadence and intuitionism, the philosophy of Nietzsche and the views of Freud. If past cultural eras were affirmative in nature, i.e. proposed and defended a new model of existence (be it the polis democracy of antiquity, the Christian asceticism of the Middle Ages, Renaissance titanism, the rationalism of the Enlightenment or romantic sentimentalism), then the culture of the turn of the 19th-20th centuries became a culture of denial, a culture of doubt and disappointment. For the first time, the rejection of existing forms of human awareness did not give rise to a new, generally accepted concept of his existence. It is the absence of a new concept that makes the turn of the 19th-20th centuries an era of crisis in European culture.

This is also the reason for the philosophical searches, tossing and tragic worldview characteristic of the European culture of modern times.

Characteristic features of art:

1. The emergence of mass culture.

In the second half of the 19th century. In Western Europe, bourgeois democracy was established, and the first features of the emerging mass consciousness began to appear.

Social sciences and humanities were forced to take into account the mass factor. Literature took the leading place, publishing developed, and a mass of new magazines appeared with previously unprecedented circulations.

There has been a division of functions in creative activity: in addition to artists, a special corps of intermediaries arose - publishers, art dealers, entrepreneurs, etc. The mainspring of the distribution of works of art was commercial interest. The entrepreneur tried to please all tastes, so the creation of low-quality and pseudo-artistic products was encouraged. It was in the 19th century. originated Mass culture with all its contradictions and vices.

2. The emergence of technocratic forms of art.

Scientific and technological discoveries have given rise to new forms of art unimaginable in previous times, such as photography and cinema. These types of art combine technicalism and an orientation towards mass consumption, because... do not require a trained or educated viewer. At the same time, the advent of photography caused a real crisis in painting, because... the artist could no longer compete with the camera lens in the truthfulness of the image, and this became one of the reasons that artists began to look for their own style of painting.

3. Impact of urbanization.

The growth of cities led not only to social changes, but also to the emergence of a new theme in European art. The theme of the city became one of the main ones in the art of impressionist artists. For symbolist poets, the city was the embodiment of the chaos of life, the lostness and loneliness of man (the work of Charles Baudelaire). Opposite meaning acquired the city in avant-garde art (for futurists the city is a symbol of progress, energy, speed).

4. Protest against bourgeois morality.

The denunciation of bourgeois morality, pragmatism, and the lack of spirituality of the new European way of life became one of the main themes in the art of the 19th century. In the 40s, critical realism, showing social contradictions in society, established itself as an artistic method in European culture. spiritual world man and his struggle for self-affirmation (French writers O. de Balzac, G. de Maupassant, G. Flaubert, E. Zola; C. Dickens, D. Galsworthy in England; F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy in Russia ). Among the realist artists are O. Daumier, G. Courbet, J.-F. Millet.

On the basis of realism and romanticism, new artistic and aesthetic theories were formed. The successor to some romantic traditions was the “Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood” that arose in England in 1842 - a society of poets and artists: poet and painter D. P. Rosseti (1828-1882), poetess C. Rosseti (1830-1879), painters J. E. . Millais (1842-1896) and E. Burn-John (1821-1878), artist, designer, writer W. Morris (1834-1896). The Pre-Raphaelites combined their rejection of modern civilization with the idealization of the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance, and demands for the aestheticization of life. The ideas of the Pre-Raphaelites largely influenced the development of symbolism and Art Nouveau style in the fine and decorative arts.

Hatred of the bourgeois world, anarchic rebellion, and longing for harmony are characteristic of the work of Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867). He became disillusioned with the ideas of humanism and expressed sentiments of depression, rebellious apostasy, and a challenge to public morality. Baudelaire described the sensations of the decline of bourgeois civilization and praised the beauty of decay. The only salvation in the “era of sadness” is art, which lives by completely different laws: it welcomes everything strange, mystical and even ugly.

Since the late 50s of the XIX century. Western European art entered an era of decadence (from the French - decline). This phenomenon became a reflection of the crisis in spiritual culture, pessimism and disappointment, and social apathy. The creators of decadence are C. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine (1844-1896), A. Rimbaud (1854-1891), A. Gide, O. Wilde, symbolist poets, artist O. Beardsley, philosopher F. Nietzsche (1844 - 1900 ). Even the titles of their works reflect their “fascination” with evil: the collections “Flowers of Evil” by Charles Baudelaire, “Through Hell” by A. Rimbaud, “Herodias” by S. Mallarmé (1842-1898), “Beyond Good and Evil” from F. Nietzsche.

The characteristic features of decadence are:

The gap between the ethical and the aesthetic: the cult of beauty, the aestheticization of the ugly;

Immoralism: recognition of the artist outside of morality, glorification of sin and vice;

Recognition of the insurmountability of evil;

Refinement and morbidity of art;

Opposition to “philistine morality”;

Appeal to the irrational;

Simultaneous disgust for life and the refinement of enjoying it.

6. The influence of positivism.

Positivism deprived man of the sphere of the ideal, the sphere of human values. In art, positivism influenced the emergence of naturalism and impressionism.

Naturalism (from Latin - natural, natural) strived for an “objective”, dispassionate reproduction of reality and proceeded from the idea of ​​complete predetermination of a person’s fate by the social environment and heredity (French writers E. Zola, brothers E. and J. Goncourt, German writers A. Holtz, K. Hauptmann).

The influence of positivism can also be traced in the field of artistic culture. Impressionism made the focus on experience and experimentation its goal. Impressionism (from French - impression) is a movement in painting that declares as its goal a new vision of the world through the direct transmission of light, color, and the dynamics of change (artists C. Monet (1840-1926), C. Pissarro (1830-1903), E. Degas (1834-1917), O. Renoir (1841-1919), sculptor O. Rodin (1840-1917)).

The characteristic features of impressionism can be called:

Lack of ideology and social themes;

Lack of ideal beauty;

Violation of the laws of classical painting (lack of composition, fragmentation, cuts of figures, decomposition of complex tones into pure colors, a peculiar manner of applying paint);

Striving for objectivity;

- “discovery” of the city landscape;

Interest in “philistine” life (entertainment in parks, boating, episodes in theaters, on dance floors, in restaurants);

The influence of impressionism can be traced in the works of many writers, artists, composers representing various creative methods, in particular, the Austrian poet R. M. Rilke (1875-1926), French composers M. Ravel (1875-1937), C. Debussy (1862- 1918) etc.

The impressionist method did not aim to comprehend the essence of man or reality, and therefore it can be considered as one of the manifestations of the crisis of humanistic culture. At the same time, the impressionists opened the beginning of a new era - the era of searching for new views and methods of artistic creativity.

7. The emergence of the “Philosophy of Life”.

The turn of the 19th – 20th centuries demonstrates an attempt to create global philosophical concepts who wanted to oppose positivism with certain ideological foundations. “Life” as a whole was chosen as the initial concept for new philosophy. It could be interpreted as a biological-naturalistic concept (F. Nietzsche), as a cosmic (A. Bergson) or cultural-historical (O. Spengler). In any case, the concept of “life” was interpreted as a comprehended organic integrity and creative dynamics.

A reflection of such views in art can be called the painting of the Post-Impressionists (A. Toulouse-Lautrec (1864 - 1901), P. Cezanne (1839 - 1906), P. Gauguin (1848 - 1903), V. Van Gogh (1853 - 1890)). These artists were not united by either a common program or a common painting method, but all of them had the following in common:

Searches for the beginnings of being;

Searches for the material and spiritual foundations of the worldview;

The courage of the creative method;

Dramatic tension, disturbing, expressive nature of the works;

Search for stable structural patterns of the universe, devoid of insignificance;

Harmonic balance of nature;

Synthetic generalizations of color and line;

The appearance of antisocial characters (drunkards, tramps, prostitutes).

8. Opposition to technocracy.

The development of machine production, which became the most important condition for the existence of European civilization and which became associated with progress, simultaneously caused a wave of reflection and criticism on the part of philosophers and artists. Most famous work on this topic - a work by a German philosopher O. Spengler (1880-1936) with the very symptomatic title “The Decline of Europe (essays on the morphology of world history).” The development of a pessimistic view of the future of Western culture begins with Spengler. His work substantiates the thesis about the dying of Western European civilization as a result of the victory of technology over spirituality.

The tragedy of man becoming an appendage to the machine was first realized at the turn of the century: man, the creator of culture, is measured by average labor productivity. The advent of a culture without individuality, a culture without a soul, became a terrible premonition that permeated the worldview of the era. “Machines, technology, the power that it brings with it, the speed of movement that it gives rise to, create chimeras and fanaticism, direct human life to fictions that give the impression of unreal realities. A bad infinity is revealed everywhere, knowing no end,” wrote the Russian philosopher N. Berdyaev.

“Inhumane man”, “unnatural nature”, “non-Christian culture” - this is how the German theologian R. Guardini defined the essence of the changes that occurred in culture by the beginning of the 20th century.

Of course, artists and poets, sensitive to the changes taking place, tried to contrast the machine’s lack of spirituality with a new style. One of the main directions in which the desire for the creative, unique, and natural was clearly manifested was the Art Nouveau style (from the French - newest, modern).

It was most fully embodied in the field of architecture, fine and decorative arts, and printing art. Representatives of Art Nouveau used new technical and constructive means (metal, glass, reinforced concrete structures) to create highly individualized, unusual works, all elements of which were subject to a single ornamental rhythm and figurative and symbolic design. Art Nouveau art is distinguished by the poetics of symbolism, the decorative rhythm of flexible flowing lines, stylized plant motifs, and recourse to ancient techniques (fresco, mosaic, stained glass). Architects: H. van de Velde in Belgium, J. Olbrich in Austria, A. Gaudi in Spain, F. O. Shekhtel in Russia. The features of Art Nouveau are manifested in the works of artists: G.Moro, G.Klimt, A.Mukha, O.Beardsley, M.A.Vrubel.

Artistic culture XIX V. developed under the influence of various political, economic, social, religious, and national factors. The Great Great Patriotic War was of particular importance for its development. French revolution, which proclaimed the ideas of freedom, equality, and fraternity.

Since practice diverged significantly from the ideals proclaimed by the revolution, the art developing during this period critically comprehended reality, therefore criticism was characteristic of the artistic culture of the 19th century.

A feature of the development of culture and art of the 19th century. is the variety of artistic movements and styles that reflected the complexity of the new era.

Federal Agency for Education

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Ural State Economic University

Center for Distance Education

TEST

discipline: "Cultural Studies"

Topic: “Western European and Russian culture at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries.”

Completed by: 1st year student

group ETR - 08 SV

specialty "Economics and Personnel Management" Zavozova O.V.

Checked by the teacher:

___________________________

2. The discovery in art of a new view of the world, new worlds of meaning that oppose the pragmatism of the bourgeois civilization of the 20th century. Characteristics of the artistic movements of impressionism, post-impressionism, cubism, expressionism, fauvism, futurism.

3. Symbolism as a movement in the art of the turn of the century. Art Nouveau style, its semantic origins and basic principles of shaping. The influence of Art Nouveau style on everyday life. Russian modern.

1. Features of the cultural situation at the turn of the century. Problems of the fate of culture in the mirror of art.

The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. represents a turning point not only in the socio-political, but also in the spiritual life of Russia. The great upheavals that the country experienced over a relatively short historical period could not but affect its cultural development. An important feature of this period is the strengthening of the process of Russia’s integration into European and world culture.

The attitude towards the West for Russian society has always been an indicator of guidelines in its progressive historical movement. For centuries, the West has been presented not as a specific political, much less geographical space, but rather as a system of values ​​- religious, scientific, ethical, aesthetic, which can either be accepted or rejected. The possibility of choice has given rise to complex conflicts in the history of Russia (let us recall, for example, the confrontation between the “Nikonians” and the Old Believers in the 17th century). The antinomies “us” - “foreign”, “Russia” - “West” had a particularly acute effect in transitional eras. The end of the 19th - the beginning of the 20th century. was just such an era, and the problem of “Russian Europeanness” acquired a special meaning at that time, figuratively expressed in the famous lines of A. A. Blok:

We love everything - and the heat of cold numbers,

And the gift of divine visions,

We understand everything - and the sharp Gallic meaning,

And the gloomy German genius...

The ideals of “Russian Europeanness,” orienting the development of Russian society along the path of European cultures, receive worthy embodiment in education, science, and art. Russian culture, without losing its national identity, increasingly acquired features of a pan-European character. Its connections with other countries have increased. This was reflected in the widespread use of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress - the telephone and gramophone, the automobile and cinema. Many Russian scientists conducted scientific and pedagogical work abroad. The most important thing is that Russia has enriched world culture with achievements in a wide variety of fields.

An important feature of the development of culture at the turn of the century is the powerful rise of the humanities. History gained a “second wind” in which the names of V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, N.A. Rozhkov and others. Philosophical thought reaches true heights, which gave rise to the great philosopher N.A. Berdyaev called the era a “religious and cultural renaissance.”

The Russian cultural Renaissance was created by a whole constellation of brilliant humanists - N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, D.S. Merezhkovsky, S.N. Trubetskoy, I.A. Ilyin, P.A. Florensky and others. Intelligence, education, romantic passion were the companions of their works. In 1909 S.N. Bulgakov, N.A. Berdyaev, S.L. Frank and other philosophers published the collection "Milestones", where they called on the intelligentsia to repent and renounce their destructive and bloodthirsty revolutionary plans.

The Russian "Renaissance" reflected the worldview of people who lived and worked at the turn of the century. As K.D. believed Balmont, people who think and feel at the turn of two periods, one completed, the other not yet born, debunk everything old, because it has lost its soul and has become a lifeless scheme. But, preceding the new, they themselves, having grown up on the old, are unable to see this new with their own eyes - that is why in their moods, next to the most enthusiastic outbursts, there is so much sick melancholy. The religious and philosophical thought of this period painfully searched for answers to the “painful questions” of Russian reality, trying to combine the incompatible - material and spiritual, the denial of Christian dogmas and Christian ethics.

The end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century is often called the "Silver Age" today. This name also belongs to N.A. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest cultural achievements of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of previous “golden” eras. Poets, architects, musicians, and artists of that time were creators of art that amazes with the intensity of premonitions of impending social cataclysms. They lived with a feeling of dissatisfaction with the “ordinary dullness” and longed for the discovery of new worlds.

2. The discovery in art of a new view of the world, new worlds of meaning that oppose the pragmatism of the bourgeois civilization of the 20th century. Characteristics of the artistic movements of impressionism, post-impressionism, cubism, expressionism, fauvism, futurism.

Impressionism(Impressionism, French impression - impression), a direction in painting that originated in France in the 1860s. and largely determined the development of art in the 19th century. The central figures of this movement were Cezanne, Degas, Manet, Monet, Pissarro, Renoir and Sisley, and the contribution of each of them to its development is unique. The impressionists opposed the conventions of classicism, romanticism and academicism, affirmed the beauty of everyday reality, simple, democratic motives, achieved living authenticity of the image, and tried to capture the “impression” of what the eye sees at a particular moment.

The most typical theme for the Impressionists is landscape, but they also touched on many other themes in their work. Degas, for example, depicted horse races, ballerinas and laundresses, and Renoir depicted charming women and children. In impressionistic landscapes created outdoors, a simple, everyday motif is often transformed by pervasive moving light, bringing a sense of festivity to the picture. In certain techniques of impressionistic construction of composition and space, the influence of Japanese engraving and partly photography is noticeable. The Impressionists were the first to create a multifaceted picture of the everyday life of a modern city, capturing the originality of its landscape and the appearance of the people inhabiting it, their life, work and entertainment.

The name “Impressionism” arose after the 1874 exhibition in Paris, at which Monet’s painting “Impression. The Rising Sun” (1872; stolen from the Marmottan Museum in Paris in 1985 and today is listed on Interpol lists) was exhibited. More than seven Impressionist exhibitions were held between 1876 and 1886; upon completion of the latter, only Monet continued to strictly follow the ideals of Impressionism. “Impressionists” are also called artists outside of France who wrote under the influence of French Impressionism (for example, the Englishman F.W. Steer).

Post-Impressionism

In the 80s XIX century The situation in French art has changed greatly. The last three exhibitions of the Impressionists showed the highest achievements of this movement and at the same time indicated that it had already exhausted itself.

At the end of the century, four artists loudly declared themselves, summing up the art of the 19th century and paving the way for the future. These were Paul Cézanne (1839-1906), Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Bright individuals, they did not unite into a group, but from different directions they moved towards one goal - to know the true essence of things hidden under their appearance. This is how post-impressionism was born (from the Latin pos - “after”). This movement was closely connected with impressionism and was able to manifest itself only at the time of its decline.

Cézanne, the oldest of the four artists, worked for a long time in parallel with the Impressionists. Meeting Camille Pissarro and working together in the open air changed Cezanne’s pictorial language. He participated in the first and third Impressionist exhibitions. Gauguin, in turn, met Pissarro in 1876 and, on his recommendation, joined the Impressionists. His work has been featured in the movement's last four exhibitions. The Dutchman Van Gogh came into contact with impressionism in 1886 after his arrival in Paris. The artist's palette became bright and clean under the influence of impressionism.

The post-impressionists were close to the impressionists in their attitude towards bourgeois society. But if the latter only contrasted their art with that of the salon, the former denied the bourgeois way of life. Cezanne, the son of a banker from the city of Aix, spent his entire life portraying a déclassé artist. Gauguin, a successful stockbroker and father of five children, gave up his career for painting. He lived in poverty on the islands of Tahiti and Hiva Oa, studying the customs of the natives and considering them superior to the achievements of European civilization. Van Gogh, who came from a Dutch pastor's family, studied theology in Amsterdam and then became a preacher in coal mines in Belgium. Turning to painting, he went to Paris, and then to Arles, where, tormented by loneliness, he went crazy and committed suicide.

Cezanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin, not finding harmony in modern society, turned to nature, seeking peace in it. However, unlike the impressionists, they sought to capture not moments, but eternity. The post-impressionists seemed to see not only obvious, but also hidden forces, the secret laws of the universe. They turned their backs on the small world of the impressionists, expanding their world to the scale of the Universe

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